Ecological analysis of The Satpura conservation area landscape through stratified field sampling and remotely sensed data Forest composition: A forest with high proportion of individuals in the recruitment class, points to the potential of the area to be sustaining more trees in the future. An age/size distribution, which decays nearly exponentially, reflects a population with many more juveniles than adults, and may be assumed to be self-replacing (Hall and Bawa, 1993).  Fig. 4. Size class distribution of Emblica officinale, Madhuca indica, Diospyros melanoxylon and Buchnania lanzan in PA and MF The trees in the protected areas were composed of various girth classes as against the managed forest, which included trees of lower girth classes predominantly. The more biotically disturbed areas within Managed Forests were interspersed with and fragmented by habitations. Some degraded forests located at the M.P and Maharashra state boundary consisted of pole crop only. Lantana indica completely suppressed the growth of grass and herb species. Comparisons of g.b.h. (Girth at breast height) class distributions of the selected tree species, across the two areas, showed a significant difference in the population structure (see Fig 4). For species like Tectona grandis, and Chloroxylon swietenia, plant parts other than seeds/fruits were harvested, thus these species had good regeneration in the managed forests. On the other hand, species exploited for human use, mainly fruits e.g. Emblica officinale, Madhuca indica, Buchnania lanzan, etc. showed poor recruitment in the managed forests indicating that the harvest of seeds and fruits, which form the seed bank for future trees affect the population of harvested tree species significantly. The branches of these trees (sometimes even whole trees) were badly cut to extract the fruits. Same was the case of Achar (Buchnania lanzan) trees but to a lesser extent. In the case of achar, the fruits were pre-maturely extracted in spite of the fact that unripe fruits could be sold at about half the price that they would fetch after ripening. Since, the seeds were almost totally extracted, their regeneration was very poor and only large trees (old) were found. In case of mahua, one reason for poor regeneration was the total collection of the flowers and fruits to brew liquor and for oil. It was only towards the end of the season, when the number of flowers and fruits reduced that the collectors stopped collecting. Only these contributed to the seed bank but fires and cattle grazing did not allow them to come up. This fact was well proven in the assisted natural regeneration (ANR) areas. These were the areas that were closed for collection and grazing and were protected from fires. There was a marked improvement in regeneration in the previous years ANR areas as compared to the current years. Poor recruitment of the non-timber species was also as the outcome of fires, grazing or of soil compaction. Teak, and tendu regeneration was high probably due to thinning and tending operations carried by the Forest Department thus promoting their growth. Bhirra too had a good regeneration probably because it was a hardy species. Extractive activities are most likely to be unsustainable if they result in killing and damage of the target species. "Aonla" and "Achar" trees were both felled and lopped in the Managed Forests during collection. The practice of felling trees would spell disaster not only in terms of regeneration of that species, but also in terms of irreplaceable loss of future source or income for the native population. Panwar and Mishra (1994), based on their study on fodder trees in Rajaji N.P indicate that trees, which are lopped, cease to flower and show total absence of regeneration. Lopping results in sap loss, attracts insect attacks, and ultimately results in plant mortality. It was observed that the density of the recruitment class at the managed forest site for "Aonla" and "Achar" was almost negligible. A seed before germination has to pass through several stages during which it is susceptible to predation and to natural mortality. Apart from all these natural factors, man-induced pressures like extraction of seeds can push seed banks below the threshold level required to maintain the population. So even the above-mentioned higher percentage of harvest taking place in the study area may cause low regeneration. Wildlife: There is a wide spectrum of floral and faunal features that occupy the Satpura conservation area. Occurrence of these varied forms are at times specific e.g. flying squirrel, giant squirrel, crocodiles otters, etc. to a particular region or at times it may be occupying a wide range of ecological niches e.g. crested serpent eagle, tiger etc. Rugged terrain along with boulders provides shelter to a number of animals on the lower slopes and valleys. The edges of habitations also constitute an important zone as it supports numerous avifauna and also chitals, nilgai, wild pig, hare etc. Old growth stands also form a rich habitat for the giant and flying squirrel. Of the top carnivores, the tiger is found to use all habitat types in the area but shows preference for dense woodlands and riparian habitat, which might offer suitable ambush for hunting. Bison and sambars are generally confined to upland forest in the hills. They make a seasonal shift to the lower slopes, valleys and plains in search of water during summer. Chitals have a preference for grasslands and marginal forests. Chausinga also prefer upland forest. Wild pigs, hare and nilgai remain confined to the forests adjoining the cultivated land. Carnivores subsisting on small prey like leopards and wild dogs are fairly evenly distributed. Serpent eagle prefers extensive undisturbed hilly area whereas bats are found in the wooded valleys. Peafowls and langurs are distributed over the whole area. Wildlife use was found to be strikingly high in case of Protected Areas for reasons obvious. The only wildlife evidences that were encountered in case of managed forests were those of wild pig, hare, nilgai and on rare occasion, sambars. In many areas bears were sighted in good numbers during the fruiting season of Mahua, Achar etc. (i.e. summers). Parts of disturbed areas of managed forests that shared their boundary with Protected area (Melghat Tiger Reserve) in Maharashtra also had evidences of Leopards and sometimes Tigers as well. Conclusion: Though the local people seem to be aware of the adverse consequences of their faulty practices, yet it continues due to several reasons. The season of Aonla harvest coincides with the period of agricultural activities, during which the people are hard-pressed for time. Thus, in order to gain maximum yield of Aonla in the least time possible, they tend to opt for the easiest means of fruit harvest, i.e., by lopping/felling which requires less time and is also labour intensive when compared to climbing the tree and plucking/beating. Achar is very valuable commercially, and is harvested when the fruit is still unripe, as ripe fruits are eaten by animals. The unripe fruit is difficult to harvest by the alternative methods of beating/plucking, and hence felling is the easier option for the people who aim to maximise their harvest. In India, the problem of biotic pressures on natural areas is extremely high. The collection of non-timber-forest-products from protected areas is a problem faced in most PAs in the country. The results of this study present a picture, which is difficult to interpret and even more difficult to resolve. It is important that the management authorities handle the issue sensitively, keeping in mind the needs and compulsions of the people, when suggesting remedies to the situation. References
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