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Ofeq:
As a result of these factors, in 1988, Israel launched the Ofeq-1 (Horizon) test satellite, using the three-stage Israeli-designed and manufactured Shavit launcher. The launch site is located on the Mediterranean Coast, and in order to avoid flying over hostile countries, a highly unusual flight path was used (northwest over the Mediterranean) placing the satellite into a retrograde orbit at an inclination of 143 degrees. Ofeq-1 was reported to be a test vehicle designed to lead to the development of an orbital reconnaissance capability, and it reentered the earth’s atmosphere in January 1989. Ofeq-2 was launched in April 1990, similar in weight and technical characteristics to Ofeq-1, and had an orbital lifetime of 3 months. Ofeq-3, launched in April 5 1995, was apparently the first operational reconnaissance system, with a payload containing ultraviolet and high-resolution imaging sensors. Its higher perigee (369 km) and orbital maneuvering capability allows for a longer lifetime. (According to reports in the Israeli press, this version of the Shavit launcher included a small new IAI third-stage rocket engine with 674 lbs of thrust.23 ) Its orbit takes it over sites in the Middle East, including Iraq.

On January 22 1998, the attempted launch of Ofeq-4 (reportedly equipped with an advanced imaging system) ended in failure when the booster malfunctioned.24 Had the last launch been successful, it would have provided Israel with two operating imaging systems operating simultaneously, significantly enhancing capability. As a result of the launch failure, the Israeli military now hopes to attempt another launch in early 2000 before Ofek 3 reenters or is no longer operational.25



EROS
As in the case of the U.S. (where the firms and individuals involved in the military reconnaissance satellite programme are centrally involved in the commercial efforts), the Israeli military and commercial high-resolution imaging satellite programs are closely interrelated. Based on the technology developed for dedicated military reconnaissance systems, Israel Aircraft Industry (IAI) has been planning commercial space ventures since the early 1980s. The establishment of the Space Technology Division at IAI in 1984 marked a major step towards developing this capability.

Although a government-owned firm formally under the control of the Ministry of Defence, IAI enjoys a significant amount of autonomy, particularly with respect to new commercial ventures. As direct government subsidies are reduced, the firm’s directors are responsible for independent resources for research and development, and for insuring employment to Israel’s largest industrial firm. In the past two decades, the efforts to increase exports and joint ventures with foreign firms have accelerated.26

IAI’s first proposal for the EROS programme was submitted in 1993. Reflecting the limits on government funds, and the high costs of development, outside investors were sought. (The major Israeli defense technology firms, including IAI, have often sought external partners in the private sector, particularly in the U.S., as a means of expanding both marketing opportunities and access to development capital. Thus, the effort to find foreign partners or investors in this case was not particularly unusual.) In order to remain the senior partner, and insure control over technology, operations, and data, joint programmes with the major commercial firms in the U.S., such as Space Imaging (Lockheed-Martin and Raytheon), OrbImage, Earthwatch, or the French SPOTIMAGE, were rejected.

In 1996, IAI agreed to work with Core Software Technology (CST), based in Pasadena, California, in the development of the EROS (Earth Remote Observation System) satellite system.

They developed an ambitious system, based on a constellation of eight commercial light LEO high-resolution imaging satellites, and designed to provide with frequent coverage of any point on the globe, compared to the more sporadic coverage that would be available from a system of one or two satellites.

For this very ambitious program, IAI, CST, and ELOP Electro Optical Industries, Ltd. (Israel) created West Indian Space (WIS), incorporated in the Cayman Islands, to manage development, launch and operations for the EROS project. Following the failure of the Ofeq-4 launch, the Israeli government’s interest in EROS as a means of lowering the cost of a satellite observation system, increased.27

EROS is advertised as a low-weight “light-sat” incorporating breakthroughs in systems concepts that allow a 200kg satellite to match the performance characteristics of satellites weighing several tons. (Similarly, IAI’s Amos Communications satellite was the lightest communications satellite built at the time of launch, in 1996.) Customers can purchase “turn-key” Earth observation systems, based on “vertical Integration of IAI’s satellite technology and CST’s archiving, distribution, image management and exploitation technology.” West Indian Space is offering to retrofit existing ground stations, used for accessing SPOT and LANDSAT images, at a cost of $10 million.28

Israeli launch capacity is currently insufficient for the orbital altitude and weight of the EROS payload, and as a result, the first satellites are scheduled to be placed into orbit using Russian launchers (in itself, a major source of controversy).29 The first stage of the programme consists of two enhanced EROS A+ satellites, to be launched in late 2000 and 2001, followed by the EROS B satellites. By 2004, the full system of 8 satellites is scheduled to be fully operational. This constellation will provide data to customers and Satellite Operating Partners (SOPs) in GIS-ready form. The satellites will be launched into low earth orbits, at altitudes of between 480 and 600 kilometers.

EROS A+ will deliver imagery at a resolution of 1.8 metres, and using the “pushbroom sweep method” of imaging, will cover a 12.5 km swathe with panchromatic imagery, provided to customer at near-real-time. EROS B1 will deliver 0.82-metre resolution from an altitude of 600 km, covering swaths of 16.5 square kilometres, followed by EROS B2 through B6 (five satellites), with 0.82 panchromatic imagery and 3.68 meter multi-spectral imagery. The EROS A+ sensors will consist of 10,000 detector elements in arrays that provide day-only or day/night performance, with time delay integration. The EROS-B series will incorporate 15,000-element modules on a single focal plane, to provide for different sources such as an IR layer over conventional (visible light) images.30

In 1999, WIS and the Israeli government reportedly signed an agreement providing exclusive access to images of the Middle East region obtained by the first three EROS satellites for eight years.31 In addition, company officials are basing their marketing plans on the expectation that states will opt for a system that is less expensive than the development of their own military surveillance programmes, which could cost five to 10 times more. WIS officials declared that they will “respect the wishes of the U.S. and Israeli governments” by not providing data to states that are subject to export restrictions, such asLibya, Iraq, and Iran.32 Details regarding possible SOPs and customers have not been published, but there has been some speculation in press reports, particularly with respect to Turkey33 and India34 . (In August 2000, the press reported that that Israel had won a contract to provide an imaging satellite system to Turkey, but the Turkish government reopened the bidding, and a French firm was able to enter a lower bid.) There are also reports that Israel rejected requests from other states to purchase EROS and Ofeq-type platforms.35

The Arab States and Iran

Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia has invested considerable resources in creating a remote-sensing infrastructure, including an advanced centre, located in Riyadh. In late 1994, a Saudi company known as EIRAD, owned by Prince Fahd Bin Salman, sought to acquire a major interest in Eyeglass (now OrbImage), in return for an agreement to build a ground station in Riyadh and exclusive rights to receive and distribute OrbView satellite images in the Middle East. (EIRAD acquired a 20% interest in the company.) The main customer is expected to be the Saudi Defence Ministry.36 As noted above, this involvement raised fears in Israel regarding the use of this system to gather military intelligence information that would be used by various Arab states and terrorist groups against Israel. In addition, the Saudi Centre for Remote Sensing (SDRS), located in Riyadh, was established in 1983, and is developing an advanced capability for data analysis. In 1999, SDRS signed an agreement with RADARSAT International (Canada) for exclusive ordering, scheduling, reception, and product generation of RADARSAT I (7 metre resolution) data for the Middle East.

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