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GIS Applications in Forest Resource Management Prospects & Potentials
Rajiv Kumar Garg
Conservator of Forests
UP Forest Department
17, Rana Pratap Marg,
Lucknow, India – 226001
Ph: +91-522-2207982
E-mail: rajivshobhit@hotmail.com
Rajiv Kumar Garg
Conservator of Forests
UP Forest Department
17, Rana Pratap Marg,
Lucknow, India – 226001
Ph: +91-522-2207982
E-mail: rajivshobhit@hotmail.com
I. Introduction
India is one of the 12 mega diversity countries having vast variety of flora and fauna, commanding 7% of World's biodiversity and supports 16 major forest types, varying from alpine pastures in Himalayas to temperature, sub-tropical forests and mangroves in the coastal areas. According to the State of Forest Report, published by the Forest Survey of India (FSI) in 2001, India has a forest cover of 675,538 km2 or 20.55% of the total geographic area of the country. Of this, dense forest constitutes 416,809 km2 (12.68%), and open forest 258,729 km2 (7.87%). The total forest and tree cover of the country is estimated as 757,010 km2 or 23.03% of the total geographic area of the country. We have a vast and rich forest resource in our country and there is an urgent need to manage this resource on scientific sustainable basis.
II. Principles of Forest Resource Management (FRM) in India
The National Forest Policy, 1988 guides the management and conservation of forests in India. Thus it is essential to understand this Policy and then to derive the objectives of FRM in our country.
1. National Forest Policy, 1988:
India's National Forest Policy, 1988 fully recognizes the contribution of forests in maintaining essential ecological processes and life support systems and in preserving genetic diversity. Forests are regarded as national assets to be protected and enhanced for the well being of the people and the nation. While emphasizing the need to cover at least one third of the land area of the country with forest or tree cover, the policy recognizes the need for greater involvement of local communities in the management of forest resources.
The services rendered by forests can be listed as follows:
With this preamble, the essentials of forest resource management can be defined as given below:
At present in many states and forest divisions the management of forests in carried out as per the prescriptions of the Working Plan (WP) prepared for that area.
1.What is a WP?
A WP is a comprehensive document aimed at achieving continuity in the management and development of forest resources within the overall framework of National Forest Policy, 1988.
WP thus prepared and approved by the competent authority remains in force for a period of 10 years. Any deviation in the management of the forest resources of the area is to be approved by the competent authority and only then the deviation can be carried out.
2.Present Working:
Even though there is a provision for regular preparation of WP for a forest area but in actual practice in many states and forest divisions this is not being done regularly. Even when the preparation of WP is done regularly there is a tendency to adopt incoherent ad hoc management of forests. Many WP even suffer from the following deficiencies:
FRM not only affects the local area but it also affects globally and at the same time the gestation period of many forestry species is quite long and damages once done cannot be rectified over a small period of time. Thus in order to achieve the above mentioned objectives of FRM a comprehensive well thought of and prepared document, let’s call it WP, is required to address the issues mentioned earlier. The National Forest Policy, 1988 has emphasized the necessity of preparation of WP and adhering to it for the conservation and management of forests. Thus there is an urgent need to make two fold efforts for the proper management of forest resources:
It is suggested that the preparation of WP should consists of various stages as enunciated below:
Forest resource assessment and mapping are the most important requisites for the preparation/review of WP.
a) Need for GIS Applications in FRM
The nature of forestry organizations in terms of their complexity is changing. Some of the key developments in this movement towards greater size and complexity, demanding updated and accurate information, are outlined below (Garg, 2002):
Information and communication technologies are not only a significant factor in the performance and growth of economics – the importance of which is continuously growing – but they also represent a novel and effective tool to help advance sustainable human development (UNDP, 1998).
This new technology greatly facilitates the acquisition and absorption of knowledge, offering developing countries unprecedented opportunities to enhance educational systems, improve policy formulation and execution, and widen the range of opportunities for business and the poor (The World Bank, 1998).
b) Scope of GIS in FRM
With the advent of satellite technology, use of Remote Sensing (RS) has become a potent tool to enhance the capabilities in forest resource management. Geographic Information System (GIS) and Global Positioning System (GPS) have further added to these capabilities. The remote sensing data is available in two forms, namely, the aerial photographs and the satellite imagery. The experience has shown that the aerial photographs are ideally suited for preparing a stock map, especially with respect to two parameters, namely, forest type and density class. An estimation of site quality is also possible through the help of aerial photographs. However the experience in our country has shown that the suitable aerial photographs are generally not available for forestry purposes. The application of modern technology of using remote sensing data in GIS environment will add new dimension to field survey and subsequent preparation of maps. Use of aerial photographs at scale 1:15,000 is ideally suited to collect information on density class. But the biggest constraint is the availability of up-to-date and suitable aerial photographs. Should these be made available, the person concerned can prepare stock map showing this parameter most accurately and with minimum of bias.
Various layers which could be useful for FRM on 1:50,000 scale are: forest density, type, site quality, drainage network, contours (slope/ aspect), soil type, road network, encroachment, forest inventory data, wildlife data, and village data.
Various combinations of the above layers combined with resources survey data will help the person in assessing the effects of various treatments to forested ecosystems. Once there is a functioning GIS containing the required information, one can begin to ask simple questions such as:
Who owns the land parcel on the corner of the forest?
How far is it between two salt licks in a wildlife national park?
Where is land zoned for industrial plantations?
Where are all the sites suitable for poplar plantations?
What is the dominant soil type for oak forest?
If we build a new railway line here, how it is going to affect the soil erosion in a particular watershed?
How many villages lie within 1 km of this forest area?
3.Integrated Approach for FRM
An integrated approach for using forest management and GIS based approach for FRM has been shown in FIGURE 1. Areas where GIS applications are needed have also been identified.
V.Case Study
In India, a typical WP is valid for a period of ten years after which it is revised. It takes on an average about 2 years to prepare a WP for a forest division. A large part of this effort goes in preparing forest stock maps and subsequent manual analysis of spatial data is also a very cumbersome task. Furthermore, as most stock mapping is done by ocular means, the possibility of inaccuracies cannot be ruled out. It may also be required to compare the current status of the forest area with that reported in the last WP which is not only extremely difficult, but many a times, not even possible.
Objective
A case study has been suggested for studying the application of GIS in aiding the preparation of working plans with the following objectives in mind:
The area suggested for study is the North Kheri Forest Division in Uttar Pradesh which extends between latitudes 27042’ N to 28046’ N and longitudes 80012’ E to 81016’ E, covering a forest area of approximately 494 sq. kms (Sharad Chandra & Srivastava, S. P., 1993). It is entirely covered on the following 25 map sheets of Survey of India at 1:50,000 scale:
Of the total area in this division, 76.16 sq. kms. is old reserve forest, 337.68 sq. kms. is new reserve forest, and 80.05 sq. kms. is vested forest land for which land consolidation work is under progress. Major species in the area include, Teak (Tectona grandis), Khair (Acacia catechu), Arjun (Terminalia arjuna), Amaltash (Cassis fistula), Kanju (Holoptalia integrifolia), Jamun (Syzygium cumini), Neem (Azadirachta indica), Sal (Shorea robusta), Shisham (Dalgergia sissoo), Tendu (Diospyros melanoxylon), Dhaori (Anogeissus latifolia) and Palas (Butea monosperma). Elevation of the area varies from 152.4 m to 182.9 m above mean sea level (MSL). Major rivers flowing through this division are Ghaghara, Sharda, Mohana, and Kodiala. Being on the outer fringe on the Dudhwa Tiger Reserve, this division plays an important role in the management and conservation of wildlife. The division is rich in wildlife namely tiger, leopard, elephant, jungle cat, jackal, wolf, fox, hyena, sloth bear, otter, black buck, wild boar, and numerous small animals and birds.
North Kheri Forest Division has six forest ranges. There are seven forest management working circles in North Kheri Forest Division as shown in Table 1.
Table 1:Forest management working circles in north kheri forest division
In order to better appreciate and understand issues related to development of a geographic database for the study area, a day long field visit of this division was conducted on 11th of November 2003.
Geographic Database Development
In order to arrive at a decision on the development of thematic layers a discussion was held with the departmental officers. The main issue was to assess the quantum and nature of the geographic database to be developed for this division. The working plan process was discussed in detail and it was decided that the following thematic layers would be required:
During the discussion it also emerged that 1:15,000 would be an appropriate scale for developing the maps. Currently, working plan maps are being prepared on 1:15,000 scale, which suffice planning requirements. At this scale, as worked out in consultation with Remote Sensing Agency, GOUP, Lucknow, each thematic layer would be covered by 9 sheets, which would mean automation of over 550 map sheets. In addition to the above, scale conversions for preparing management maps and volume maps at 1:50,000 scale would also be required.
Some common queries required to be answered by the geographic database would include, areas of stocked and under-stocked forests, site quality wise area statistics, forest type wise area statistics, status of blanks and encroachments, area falling within slope classes, age and density statistics, status of degraded forests, length of forest roads, addition and deletion of notified, de-notified areas, deliniation of catchment areas etc. The geographic database would also be used for identification of candidate areas for pursuing Joint Forest Management and Eco-development activities. This would require assessing proximity of degraded forest area to villages.
Digital data from different sensors should be used to assess its utility for identifications of cover and density classes. The classified data would be incorporated in the geographic database. Similarly, use of GPS for improved ground based mapping and ground truth verification will also be attempted.
In addition to the above, a cost-time assessment should also be done to determine the quantum of resources required for building a geographic database.
Learning and Documentation
Finding of the study should be presented before the UP Forest Department officials and the approach and the methodology should be tested for its suitability for the use of GIS in preparing WP in future.
VI. Conclusion
Present forest management practices are not effective in forest resource management. Improved forest management practices and applications of GIS, remote sensing, and GPS are needed for the better management of this resource. A case study in one of the well stocked forest areas is suggested in order to understand cost implications, requirement of resources, constraints, if any, and suitability of such an approach.
Reference
The following material was used as reference for preparing this paper:
India is one of the 12 mega diversity countries having vast variety of flora and fauna, commanding 7% of World's biodiversity and supports 16 major forest types, varying from alpine pastures in Himalayas to temperature, sub-tropical forests and mangroves in the coastal areas. According to the State of Forest Report, published by the Forest Survey of India (FSI) in 2001, India has a forest cover of 675,538 km2 or 20.55% of the total geographic area of the country. Of this, dense forest constitutes 416,809 km2 (12.68%), and open forest 258,729 km2 (7.87%). The total forest and tree cover of the country is estimated as 757,010 km2 or 23.03% of the total geographic area of the country. We have a vast and rich forest resource in our country and there is an urgent need to manage this resource on scientific sustainable basis.
II. Principles of Forest Resource Management (FRM) in India
The National Forest Policy, 1988 guides the management and conservation of forests in India. Thus it is essential to understand this Policy and then to derive the objectives of FRM in our country.
1. National Forest Policy, 1988:
India's National Forest Policy, 1988 fully recognizes the contribution of forests in maintaining essential ecological processes and life support systems and in preserving genetic diversity. Forests are regarded as national assets to be protected and enhanced for the well being of the people and the nation. While emphasizing the need to cover at least one third of the land area of the country with forest or tree cover, the policy recognizes the need for greater involvement of local communities in the management of forest resources.
The services rendered by forests can be listed as follows:
- Protection of soil and water resources, and regulation of hydrologic flow.
- Conservation of biological diversity and gene pool.
- Support to agricultural productivity and sustainability.
- Carbon sequestration and mitigation of global warming.
- Combating desertification and resources degradation.
- Providing shade, amenity and recreation.
- Protecting hilly and coastal areas.
With this preamble, the essentials of forest resource management can be defined as given below:
- To achieve the optimum development of forest resources for attaining the overall goal of sustainable development.
- Managing forest resource to meet present needs without compromising the needs of future generations.
- Restoring damaged ecologies.
- To develop and strengthen the stakes of the local community in the management of forest resources.
- To optimize the environmental service rendered by forests.
- First charge on the productivity of the forests should be of the local people for their essential livelihood needs. However, the need for conservation of biological diversity should not be compromised.
At present in many states and forest divisions the management of forests in carried out as per the prescriptions of the Working Plan (WP) prepared for that area.
1.What is a WP?
A WP is a comprehensive document aimed at achieving continuity in the management and development of forest resources within the overall framework of National Forest Policy, 1988.
WP thus prepared and approved by the competent authority remains in force for a period of 10 years. Any deviation in the management of the forest resources of the area is to be approved by the competent authority and only then the deviation can be carried out.
2.Present Working:
Even though there is a provision for regular preparation of WP for a forest area but in actual practice in many states and forest divisions this is not being done regularly. Even when the preparation of WP is done regularly there is a tendency to adopt incoherent ad hoc management of forests. Many WP even suffer from the following deficiencies:
- Faulty assessment of forest crop, growth statistics, regeneration status, etc.
- Lacking long-term prescriptions in the overall interest of the sustainable development of forests in particular and environment in general.
- Don’t take into consideration various new management practices.
- WP preparation is done as a routine exercise and when it comes to its implementation it is seldom taken into consideration.
- Ad hoc deviations are made in the management of forests without seeking approvals from the competent authority.
FRM not only affects the local area but it also affects globally and at the same time the gestation period of many forestry species is quite long and damages once done cannot be rectified over a small period of time. Thus in order to achieve the above mentioned objectives of FRM a comprehensive well thought of and prepared document, let’s call it WP, is required to address the issues mentioned earlier. The National Forest Policy, 1988 has emphasized the necessity of preparation of WP and adhering to it for the conservation and management of forests. Thus there is an urgent need to make two fold efforts for the proper management of forest resources:
- Infusion of new management practices based on forest science.
- Infusion of modern technology in FRM.
It is suggested that the preparation of WP should consists of various stages as enunciated below:
- Collection of basic information about forest such as: extent of forest areas, impact of past management practices, plantations’ details, status of forest and revenue villages, production of forest produce, and problems encountered in regard to management and protection of forests including fires, grazing and encroachments, etc.
- Preparation of First Preliminary WP Report (PWR)as a framework suggesting methodology for collection and analysis of information and suggestions for changes or modification of certain management practices in order to achieve more effective results.
- Field works including surveys and mapping such as:
- Forest resources survey i.e. enumeration of forest species and bamboo.
- Bamboo enumeration.
- Stock maps showing forest type, density, age class, site quality, regeneration status, and root-stock.
- Plantation survey to compare the growth achieved with the projected growth and ascertaining the reasons of variation and to assess the effectiveness of various forestry operations.
- Forest soil resources survey and inventory preparation.
- Socio-economic survey including assessment of joint forest management, demand-supply gap for forest produce, and availability of community/private land for tree planting.
- Stump and stem analysis for preparing graphs showing relationship between the diameter and age, height and age, and volume and age of important species. This along with enumeration of the crop can be used for assessing the growing stock of the forest.
- Estimation of non-timber forest produce (NTFP).
- Assessment of status of biodiversity and wildlife conservation including habitat, waterholes, saltlicks, etc.
- Preparation of forest compartment history including details of area, crop, regeneration, forestry operations, fire, illicit-felling, grazing etc.
-
Preparation of Second PWR
which will mention the characteristics of the forest, effect of past management practices, present needs and objective and proposed management. -
Preparation of WP
will include documenting details about the forest, locality factor, growth and yield statistics, result of previous management, demand and supply of forest produce, objectives of management, prescription for forest and wildlife management practices, implementation strategies including financial implications, monitoring & evaluation parameters, and statistics related to growth and yield of prominent species.
Maps should be an integral part of WP. Various maps which are needed are: stock map (1: 25,000 or 1:15,000), management map (1:50,000), volume map (1:50,000), soil map (1:2,50,000), and index map of forest division (1:2,50,000). -
Approval of WP by the Competent Authority
WP once approved by the concerned State Government and the regional office of the Ministry of Environment & Forests should become a legal document and it should remain in force for 10 years. -
Implementation of WP i.e. FRM
There is a need to make the implementation agency aware of the provisions of the WP. Regular workshops should be organized and feedbacks must be obtained. Adequate finances must be made available for carrying out the prescriptions. -
Monitoring & evaluation of FRM
will be needed for deriving the benefits of this exercise. There is a need to identify physical indicators for each major issue such as site, vegetation, and productivity. -
Feed back and readjustment
At present the WP is revised only after a period of 10 years and there is no provision for mid-term review. This needs to be built in so that the system of management can be readjusted timely, if the need arises.
Forest resource assessment and mapping are the most important requisites for the preparation/review of WP.
a) Need for GIS Applications in FRM
The nature of forestry organizations in terms of their complexity is changing. Some of the key developments in this movement towards greater size and complexity, demanding updated and accurate information, are outlined below (Garg, 2002):
- The scope of forestry sector has increased beyond the domain of forest and wildlife management to the areas of soil conservation, rural development, integrated area development, and landscape improvement have all been brought under the umbrella of forestry organizations.
- There is growing interdependency of forestry sector with agriculture, water harvesting, urbanization, tourism, livestock and infrastructure development.
Information and communication technologies are not only a significant factor in the performance and growth of economics – the importance of which is continuously growing – but they also represent a novel and effective tool to help advance sustainable human development (UNDP, 1998).
This new technology greatly facilitates the acquisition and absorption of knowledge, offering developing countries unprecedented opportunities to enhance educational systems, improve policy formulation and execution, and widen the range of opportunities for business and the poor (The World Bank, 1998).
b) Scope of GIS in FRM
With the advent of satellite technology, use of Remote Sensing (RS) has become a potent tool to enhance the capabilities in forest resource management. Geographic Information System (GIS) and Global Positioning System (GPS) have further added to these capabilities. The remote sensing data is available in two forms, namely, the aerial photographs and the satellite imagery. The experience has shown that the aerial photographs are ideally suited for preparing a stock map, especially with respect to two parameters, namely, forest type and density class. An estimation of site quality is also possible through the help of aerial photographs. However the experience in our country has shown that the suitable aerial photographs are generally not available for forestry purposes. The application of modern technology of using remote sensing data in GIS environment will add new dimension to field survey and subsequent preparation of maps. Use of aerial photographs at scale 1:15,000 is ideally suited to collect information on density class. But the biggest constraint is the availability of up-to-date and suitable aerial photographs. Should these be made available, the person concerned can prepare stock map showing this parameter most accurately and with minimum of bias.
Various layers which could be useful for FRM on 1:50,000 scale are: forest density, type, site quality, drainage network, contours (slope/ aspect), soil type, road network, encroachment, forest inventory data, wildlife data, and village data.
Various combinations of the above layers combined with resources survey data will help the person in assessing the effects of various treatments to forested ecosystems. Once there is a functioning GIS containing the required information, one can begin to ask simple questions such as:
Who owns the land parcel on the corner of the forest?
How far is it between two salt licks in a wildlife national park?
Where is land zoned for industrial plantations?
Where are all the sites suitable for poplar plantations?
What is the dominant soil type for oak forest?
If we build a new railway line here, how it is going to affect the soil erosion in a particular watershed?
How many villages lie within 1 km of this forest area?
3.Integrated Approach for FRM
An integrated approach for using forest management and GIS based approach for FRM has been shown in FIGURE 1. Areas where GIS applications are needed have also been identified.
V.Case Study
In India, a typical WP is valid for a period of ten years after which it is revised. It takes on an average about 2 years to prepare a WP for a forest division. A large part of this effort goes in preparing forest stock maps and subsequent manual analysis of spatial data is also a very cumbersome task. Furthermore, as most stock mapping is done by ocular means, the possibility of inaccuracies cannot be ruled out. It may also be required to compare the current status of the forest area with that reported in the last WP which is not only extremely difficult, but many a times, not even possible.
Objective
A case study has been suggested for studying the application of GIS in aiding the preparation of working plans with the following objectives in mind:
- To assess the utility of using GIS as an aid in the preparation of WP.
- To interface remotely sensed data and GPS data with GIS and to assess their suitability to aid mapping and ground verification.
- To document cost and time investments in building geographic databases with a view to assess overall viability.
- To develop guidelines for using procedures developed as part of this study, at other sites.
Figure 1: An Integrated Approach for Forest Resource Management
The area suggested for study is the North Kheri Forest Division in Uttar Pradesh which extends between latitudes 27042’ N to 28046’ N and longitudes 80012’ E to 81016’ E, covering a forest area of approximately 494 sq. kms (Sharad Chandra & Srivastava, S. P., 1993). It is entirely covered on the following 25 map sheets of Survey of India at 1:50,000 scale:
62/D?3,4,7,8,11,12,15,16 (total number of sheets 8)
62/H?3,4 (total number of sheets 2)
63/A?1,2,3,5,6,7,9,10,11,13,14,15 (total number of sheets 12)
62/D?1,2,3 (total number of sheets 3)
Of the total area in this division, 76.16 sq. kms. is old reserve forest, 337.68 sq. kms. is new reserve forest, and 80.05 sq. kms. is vested forest land for which land consolidation work is under progress. Major species in the area include, Teak (Tectona grandis), Khair (Acacia catechu), Arjun (Terminalia arjuna), Amaltash (Cassis fistula), Kanju (Holoptalia integrifolia), Jamun (Syzygium cumini), Neem (Azadirachta indica), Sal (Shorea robusta), Shisham (Dalgergia sissoo), Tendu (Diospyros melanoxylon), Dhaori (Anogeissus latifolia) and Palas (Butea monosperma). Elevation of the area varies from 152.4 m to 182.9 m above mean sea level (MSL). Major rivers flowing through this division are Ghaghara, Sharda, Mohana, and Kodiala. Being on the outer fringe on the Dudhwa Tiger Reserve, this division plays an important role in the management and conservation of wildlife. The division is rich in wildlife namely tiger, leopard, elephant, jungle cat, jackal, wolf, fox, hyena, sloth bear, otter, black buck, wild boar, and numerous small animals and birds.
North Kheri Forest Division has six forest ranges. There are seven forest management working circles in North Kheri Forest Division as shown in Table 1.
| S. No. | Working Circle | Area under the working circle (in sq. km.) |
| 1 | Plantation Working Circle | 342.80 |
| 2 | Khair Working Circle (Overlapping) | 84.96 |
| 3 | Strip Plantation Working Circle | 4.53 |
| 4 | Unallotted Working Circle | 151.10 |
| 5 | Minor Forest Produce Working Circle (Overlapping) | 493.90 |
| 6 | Fire Protection Working Circle (Overlapping) | 493.90 |
| 7 | Wildlife Management Working Circle (Overlapping) | 493.90 |
In order to better appreciate and understand issues related to development of a geographic database for the study area, a day long field visit of this division was conducted on 11th of November 2003.
Geographic Database Development
In order to arrive at a decision on the development of thematic layers a discussion was held with the departmental officers. The main issue was to assess the quantum and nature of the geographic database to be developed for this division. The working plan process was discussed in detail and it was decided that the following thematic layers would be required:
- Forest type/cover
- Fire lines
- Slope derived from contours
- Drainage
- Villages
- Roads
- Boundaries of compartment, block, range, division, coupe, district and State
During the discussion it also emerged that 1:15,000 would be an appropriate scale for developing the maps. Currently, working plan maps are being prepared on 1:15,000 scale, which suffice planning requirements. At this scale, as worked out in consultation with Remote Sensing Agency, GOUP, Lucknow, each thematic layer would be covered by 9 sheets, which would mean automation of over 550 map sheets. In addition to the above, scale conversions for preparing management maps and volume maps at 1:50,000 scale would also be required.
Some common queries required to be answered by the geographic database would include, areas of stocked and under-stocked forests, site quality wise area statistics, forest type wise area statistics, status of blanks and encroachments, area falling within slope classes, age and density statistics, status of degraded forests, length of forest roads, addition and deletion of notified, de-notified areas, deliniation of catchment areas etc. The geographic database would also be used for identification of candidate areas for pursuing Joint Forest Management and Eco-development activities. This would require assessing proximity of degraded forest area to villages.
Digital data from different sensors should be used to assess its utility for identifications of cover and density classes. The classified data would be incorporated in the geographic database. Similarly, use of GPS for improved ground based mapping and ground truth verification will also be attempted.
In addition to the above, a cost-time assessment should also be done to determine the quantum of resources required for building a geographic database.
Learning and Documentation
Finding of the study should be presented before the UP Forest Department officials and the approach and the methodology should be tested for its suitability for the use of GIS in preparing WP in future.
VI. Conclusion
Present forest management practices are not effective in forest resource management. Improved forest management practices and applications of GIS, remote sensing, and GPS are needed for the better management of this resource. A case study in one of the well stocked forest areas is suggested in order to understand cost implications, requirement of resources, constraints, if any, and suitability of such an approach.
Reference
The following material was used as reference for preparing this paper:
- Government of India, Ministry of Environment & Forests, National Forest Policy, 1988.
- Government of India, Ministry of Environment & Forests, State of Forest Report 2001.
- Garg, R. K. 2002. Forest Management Information System in the State of Uttar Pradesh, India. The International Forestry Review. Vol. 4(3), September 2002. Commonwealth Forestry Association, Oxfordshire, UK
- Sharad Chandra & Srivastava, S. P. 1993. Working Plan of North Kheri Forest Division 1993-94 ?2002-03, UP Forest Department, Lucknow.
- The World Bank. 1998. World Development Report. World Bank, Washington, DC.
- UNDP. 1998. Information and Communication Technologies for Development. UNDP, New York.