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"CITY GREEN PLAN" as a means to achieve sustainable development - GIS APPROACH
Ar. A. Meenatchi Sundaram
Teaching/Research Associate, SAP, Anna University,
Chennai, Tamil Nadu.
minchu50@hotmail.com
Ar. A. Meenatchi Sundaram
Teaching/Research Associate, SAP, Anna University,
Chennai, Tamil Nadu.
minchu50@hotmail.com
Abstract
Vegetations playing an effective roll in the urban environment (ecosystem), supporting many fundamental sub systems like hydrological cycles, Nutrients cycles, atmospheric gas balance etc. However increasing population and the burgeoning urbanization process are converting more and more soft green spaces into impermeable hard concrete surfaces. Man’s implication of this activity derelict the green spaces, and put his city in a deprived state of “GREENS SERVICES”. Hence the urban areas experiencing water scarcity, air pollution, heat islands etc., apart from many such problems. Number of such studies under taken in this direction suggesting that, the development of green areas will improve the present urban environmental conditions.
There are number of attempts in this direction to increase the green spaces in the urban areas such as, urban forestry, Silviculture, Afforestation, Social forestry etc., with the aim of improving the environmental condition. It is absorbed that the number of such activity does bring more green spaces, however attempts on the integration of trees, as an element of urban landscape are missing. Such an attempt would deliver functionally more effective and aesthetically pleasing environment. This requires many data / parameters such as ownerships, soil types, hydrology, topography, micro and macro climatic aspects, size and nature of the city etc. Provided all this data with the tool like GIS, it is easy to develop an effective proposal of “CITY’S GREEN “, to address environmental and aesthetic issues of urban area.
This study is an attempt in this direction tries to evolve an effective methodology using GIS as a tool, to integrate, this environmentally important element, as an effective functional element of the urban landscape.
Introduction
The forces and processes of technological development, globalization and population growth accelerate the dynamics of urbanization process in the developing country. This could be visualized by the percentage of people living in the urban area has been increased from 14% to 45% between the year 1900 to 1993, and it is expected to increase to about 61% by the year 2025 among the total world population (1). Number of cities also increase, as there were only 83 cities in 1950 with a population of more then one million and 34 of them in the developing country, and today there are around 280 of such a settlement in the world and expected to double by the year 2015.Roughly 150,000 people are added to the urban population of developing countries every day. (2)
This trend is also holds good for mega cities (defined as a city with a population exceeding 8 million). There were only two in 1950 (New York, with a population of 12.3 million, and London, with 8.7 million). By 1990, there were 21 mega cities, 16 of them in the developing world. In the year 2015, there will be 33 mega cities, 27 in the developing world (WRI-96). Thus, the ever increasing, urbanization process are constantly escalating the socio-economic demands, which altering the biophysical environment of the city. Hence the city becomes less natural / livable with lots of environmental problems, cumulatively it changed the global environment system.(27)
Urbanization Vs. Environment
This rapid growth rates of many cities, combined with their huge population base, are pushing the cities to unprecedented sizes, These processes modified the natural features of a city and its surroundings (geography, topography, and climate), through three main ways: 1.The conversion of land to urban uses, 2.The extraction and depletion of natural resources, and 3.The disposal of wastes in the urban area. As the cities expand, through conurbation process, prime agricultural land and habitats such as wetlands and forests (in and around the city) are transformed into land for housing, roads, industry, etc.(21). The increasing numbers of research by the environmental scientists, have the common opinion that the fundamental capacity of the natural capital (biophysical component) to support the humanity on this earth itself reached the threshold (Daly and cobb, 1989,Janson et al 1994), because of the rapid conversion of the biophysical elements in the urbanization process.
For example:
As the result, the urban areas experiencing many environmental problems like air pollution, depletion of the ground water table, water scarcity, microclimatic change, flooding and soil erosion, more variation in the diurnal temperatures etc.
For example:
Environmental functions of an ecosystem
De Groot (1992) identified the critical role of “environmental functions” of the ecosystem, which produces good and services directly or indirectly for the human’s survival on this planet (25), which is controlled by it ‘s various biological, physical and chemical components (i.e. Land, air, water, vegetation, animals, etc.) collectively known as biophysical variables. Fundamental types of the functional categories are distinguished:
Nature providing all this services everywhere freely without any geographical constraint and cost. None of this service can be replaceable by our modern technology. The GREENS / VEGETATIONS are the prime biophysical elements of the terrestrial ecosystem, which performing most of this services either as a single element or combine with other biophysical variables, directly or indirectly.
Fig 1: Symmetry and Balance
Role of the city green in the urban ecosystem
The integrated system of human components and the biophysical variables (environment) of the city are commonly known as the urban ecosystem. The relationships between these two components are extremely complex and always conflicting with each other (23). The cities are expanding in its size at the expense of the nature (biophysical variables). The city greens (trees, lawns / parks, forest and cultivated land etc), are the only potential biophysical elements to sustain our city, (since man modified all the other elements in the city are irreparable), which can provide basic services to the man’s survival, such as
According to American Forestry Association (AFA) one city tree can provide over $57,000 worth of air conditioning, erosion, storm water control, wild life shelter and also air pollution control over 50 years of its life span. (Web 2).
Roll of city green in the urban landscape
The ever-increasing demands for building and paving in the urban area impaired physical environment to the extend that; the spatial patterns are more fragmented and confusing, city becomes less humane in nature. The gap between the urban man and the nature is widened ever then before. The city green are the potential / prominent design element (apart from its ecological / environmental benefits), capable of bring together the entire city through defining / reinforce / creating varies spaces in different levels (i.e. Micro level to Macro level). (15,16) That is Image
Table 8.1 Technical factors determining the city green
The potential use of the trees in shaping and humanizing our cities remain unperceived one. As an animal, man always relates himself empathically to his environment. Many social scientist proved that the improvement / introducing the nature in the form of vegetations, wild life, soil and water in significant quantity, close relationships to the living and working place will improve the community health and the working efficiency of an individual in the city. (14)
Need for the integration of city green
Present works in this direction in the urban area (Ex: urban agriculture, social forestry, urban forestry, silviculture, a forestation, urban farming, etc.,) emphasize, either on the marketable returns (food, fodder, revenue), or merely engaging in the development of the forest in the city (19). To get the quick and faster results, introduction of single (some times few) species or exotic plants in large extent, (Ex. Eucalyptus, Lucaena lecocephala, Cassurina equtifolia, etc.), creating many problems in the urban area, such as,
Design aspects of the city green
Like words, urban trees are powerful symbols, which can produce poetry or confusion depends on the way it is handled. The arrangement, spacing, location and type of species must be identified individually to meet the functional requirement of the each urban space. (16,18). Some of the important design implications to use the city green as design elements in the urban area are,(fig. 2, 3,4,5)
Physical Design Principles
This is physical arrangement of trees in the space. Through,
1. Coherence.
2. Organizing,
3. Geometric pattern. (fig. 1)
Abstract Design Principle
This is designer’s pre-conceived idea about creating / ordering spatial organization in the city, it can be divided into following ways 1. Transition .2. Scale 3. Light and shadow.
Spatial composition
Trees are defining the spaces in two different ways, horizontally (by visually enclosing it) and vertically (by creating airy ceiling of branches). Using spatial arrangement in terms of spacing and physical character of the trees it is possible to crate interesting spaces in the city.
Fig 10: Direction
Factors Determining The City Green
Deciding the pattern / type of the City green / Landscape involves many technical and design factors.(18)
Table 8.2: Design factors for city green
Technical factors
As the natural element, development of the green spaces in the urban areas depends on the natural (scientific) and manmade factors at the regional level. (Table 8.1)
Design factors
Design factors highly defined by the functional requirement of the location, (for example, with in the small house plot itself functional demand vary from the front to back side of the building) and the user pattern and the building type where it associates (16).(fig.6,7,8,9,10). The design factors can be divided into
Environmental factors
Apart form the above factors; the local urban environment condition is the prime factors (13) in determine the City’s green
The perfect compromise should be achieved between the above factors in order to develop an appropriate city green system to make our cities sustainable.
Roll of GIS / RS in developing the city green
Selection of appropriate City’s green system involves number of selection criteria and different disciplines, which is tedious job for a planner / designer to do manually, and it is a time consuming process. Handling all these criteria and data types from the different discipline demands sophisticated tool. The entry of RS / GIS / GPS enabled the planners /designers to acquire and analysis different data in variety of fashions.
Table 8.3 Emvironmental factors determining the city green
Remote Sensing
The development of an appropriate city green system demands many basic spatial information from different disciplines in the regional scale, such as soil map, climatic maps, topographic maps, vegetative maps, land use maps, land cover maps, etc. (Table 8.1, Table 8.2, Table 8.3). Collection of all this information in the conventional method required huge manpower and it is time-consuming process. The remote sensing facilitates us to collect all this biological and physical information across the disciplines in the regional level through aerial photographs / satellite pictures directly and frequently (30).
Geographical Information System
The selection of particular tree for particular location involves multiple multilevel queries of the spatial and attribute data. To this in manually is the exasperating and tough to find alternatives. GIS assist us in handling all this data simultaneously as we desire and it is easy to find alternatives. GIS handles number of spatial objects, their properties, and their interrelationships to each other. And enabling us to store, process and visualizes current and old information. The stored digital map information of the GIS database can be plot in the required formatted, to produce a map. Retrieval, manipulation and display of all these data are possible through set of GIS tools. (29) such as
Through data merging
The information in the digitized form (such as soil map, climatic maps, topographic maps, vegetative maps, land use maps, land cover maps, etc.) can be merged with one another, in layer form, using the common database such as boundary map, village map or road maps. (28) Through this merging technique we can identify potential area to improve the green systems and set of plant list for that particular areas.
Through querying
To identifying the particular plant for particular location is needs data like functional (design) factors, environmental factors. Through developing an algorithms we can do a spatial query to find out appropriate plant for “a location “ in the city / individual plot. For example: selection of a tree list for a plot involves set of queries like,
All this queries involves many features i.e. point features, line features, polygon features
Methodology
Conculution
Since city green plays multiple rolls in the human landscape, integration of the CITY GREEN in our urban system would be the first step towards our sustainability. Finding appropriate city green system for healthy and effective city can be possible only through GIS / GPS, RS.
Acknowledgement
Without the encouragement and support of Dr. S.P.Sekar, Asst. Professor, SAP,Anna University, it would not be so comprehensive.
References
Vegetations playing an effective roll in the urban environment (ecosystem), supporting many fundamental sub systems like hydrological cycles, Nutrients cycles, atmospheric gas balance etc. However increasing population and the burgeoning urbanization process are converting more and more soft green spaces into impermeable hard concrete surfaces. Man’s implication of this activity derelict the green spaces, and put his city in a deprived state of “GREENS SERVICES”. Hence the urban areas experiencing water scarcity, air pollution, heat islands etc., apart from many such problems. Number of such studies under taken in this direction suggesting that, the development of green areas will improve the present urban environmental conditions.
There are number of attempts in this direction to increase the green spaces in the urban areas such as, urban forestry, Silviculture, Afforestation, Social forestry etc., with the aim of improving the environmental condition. It is absorbed that the number of such activity does bring more green spaces, however attempts on the integration of trees, as an element of urban landscape are missing. Such an attempt would deliver functionally more effective and aesthetically pleasing environment. This requires many data / parameters such as ownerships, soil types, hydrology, topography, micro and macro climatic aspects, size and nature of the city etc. Provided all this data with the tool like GIS, it is easy to develop an effective proposal of “CITY’S GREEN “, to address environmental and aesthetic issues of urban area.
This study is an attempt in this direction tries to evolve an effective methodology using GIS as a tool, to integrate, this environmentally important element, as an effective functional element of the urban landscape.
Introduction
The forces and processes of technological development, globalization and population growth accelerate the dynamics of urbanization process in the developing country. This could be visualized by the percentage of people living in the urban area has been increased from 14% to 45% between the year 1900 to 1993, and it is expected to increase to about 61% by the year 2025 among the total world population (1). Number of cities also increase, as there were only 83 cities in 1950 with a population of more then one million and 34 of them in the developing country, and today there are around 280 of such a settlement in the world and expected to double by the year 2015.Roughly 150,000 people are added to the urban population of developing countries every day. (2)
This trend is also holds good for mega cities (defined as a city with a population exceeding 8 million). There were only two in 1950 (New York, with a population of 12.3 million, and London, with 8.7 million). By 1990, there were 21 mega cities, 16 of them in the developing world. In the year 2015, there will be 33 mega cities, 27 in the developing world (WRI-96). Thus, the ever increasing, urbanization process are constantly escalating the socio-economic demands, which altering the biophysical environment of the city. Hence the city becomes less natural / livable with lots of environmental problems, cumulatively it changed the global environment system.(27)
Urbanization Vs. Environment
This rapid growth rates of many cities, combined with their huge population base, are pushing the cities to unprecedented sizes, These processes modified the natural features of a city and its surroundings (geography, topography, and climate), through three main ways: 1.The conversion of land to urban uses, 2.The extraction and depletion of natural resources, and 3.The disposal of wastes in the urban area. As the cities expand, through conurbation process, prime agricultural land and habitats such as wetlands and forests (in and around the city) are transformed into land for housing, roads, industry, etc.(21). The increasing numbers of research by the environmental scientists, have the common opinion that the fundamental capacity of the natural capital (biophysical component) to support the humanity on this earth itself reached the threshold (Daly and cobb, 1989,Janson et al 1994), because of the rapid conversion of the biophysical elements in the urbanization process.
For example:
- In US, the total amount of land under urban uses increased from 21 million hectares in 1982 to 26 million hectares in 1992. In one decade, 2,085,945 hectares of forestland, 1,525,314 hectares of cultivated cropland, 943,598 hectares of pastureland, and 774,029 hectares of rangeland were converted to urban uses (3).
- Five percent of China’s total croplands were lost within six years (1986 – 1992), because of urban expansion and industrialization (web 1).
- During the year 1972 – 1983 open space in the major Indian cities are depleted around 50%.(4) (Table 2.1)
As the result, the urban areas experiencing many environmental problems like air pollution, depletion of the ground water table, water scarcity, microclimatic change, flooding and soil erosion, more variation in the diurnal temperatures etc.
For example:
- Since 1965, the water table fallen by some 59m or nearly 200 feet due to continues extraction of water to meet the growing urban population need (W.W.I). The Yellow river, cradle of China, after flowing uninterruptedly for thousand of years, failing to reach the sea from 1972 onwards as a result of reducing the green, part of urbanization process along the banks of the river (6)
- As the result of over extraction of the ground water, Bangkok metropolitan sank 1.6m (63inch) during 1960-1988 (3).
- The estimation of National flood commission of India shows that the flood prone area increased from about 40 million hectares in 1978 to 59 million hectares in 1987. (6).
- During 1950-1970, around 400,000 km of green space in the core of the Sao Paulo city (Brazil) was converted to urban use, as the result the city’s temperature increased by 10 deg. more than outskirts. (3)
Environmental functions of an ecosystem
De Groot (1992) identified the critical role of “environmental functions” of the ecosystem, which produces good and services directly or indirectly for the human’s survival on this planet (25), which is controlled by it ‘s various biological, physical and chemical components (i.e. Land, air, water, vegetation, animals, etc.) collectively known as biophysical variables. Fundamental types of the functional categories are distinguished:
Nature providing all this services everywhere freely without any geographical constraint and cost. None of this service can be replaceable by our modern technology. The GREENS / VEGETATIONS are the prime biophysical elements of the terrestrial ecosystem, which performing most of this services either as a single element or combine with other biophysical variables, directly or indirectly.
Fig 1: Symmetry and Balance
 Fig 2: Location |
 Fig 3: View |
Role of the city green in the urban ecosystem
The integrated system of human components and the biophysical variables (environment) of the city are commonly known as the urban ecosystem. The relationships between these two components are extremely complex and always conflicting with each other (23). The cities are expanding in its size at the expense of the nature (biophysical variables). The city greens (trees, lawns / parks, forest and cultivated land etc), are the only potential biophysical elements to sustain our city, (since man modified all the other elements in the city are irreparable), which can provide basic services to the man’s survival, such as
According to American Forestry Association (AFA) one city tree can provide over $57,000 worth of air conditioning, erosion, storm water control, wild life shelter and also air pollution control over 50 years of its life span. (Web 2).
 Fig 4: Orientation |
 Fig 5: Wind Pattern |
Roll of city green in the urban landscape
The ever-increasing demands for building and paving in the urban area impaired physical environment to the extend that; the spatial patterns are more fragmented and confusing, city becomes less humane in nature. The gap between the urban man and the nature is widened ever then before. The city green are the potential / prominent design element (apart from its ecological / environmental benefits), capable of bring together the entire city through defining / reinforce / creating varies spaces in different levels (i.e. Micro level to Macro level). (15,16) That is Image
Table 8.1 Technical factors determining the city green
| Sino. | Factors | Components | Data type |
| 1 | Natural (Scientific) Data | Soil types, depth and boundary are the major limiting factors. | |
| Percentage of the slope, exposures, orientation. | |||
| Contours, elevation, landforms, streams, etc. | |||
| Bedrock types, morphology. | |||
| Rainfall, temperature, humidity, wind speed, | |||
| Due to local factors such as presence of the coast, deserts, river, etc. | |||
| Latitude and altitude. | |||
| Surface water sources, ground water sources. | |||
| Nature of the vegetation occur in that area, forest type, exotic species, and their social, commercial and religious values, physical features (ht, crown type, speed of the growth, flowering, resistance to pest and climate, etc.) | |||
| 2. | The man made factors | Present and proposed use pattern of the land. | |
| Land cover type such as forest, built up area, agriculture land, etc. | |||
| The ownership of the land: | |||
| Built versus open spaces in the city. | |||
| Population and density of the city. | |||
| Government policy, environmental laws, reservation, Administrative boundaries, etc. |
The potential use of the trees in shaping and humanizing our cities remain unperceived one. As an animal, man always relates himself empathically to his environment. Many social scientist proved that the improvement / introducing the nature in the form of vegetations, wild life, soil and water in significant quantity, close relationships to the living and working place will improve the community health and the working efficiency of an individual in the city. (14)
Need for the integration of city green
Present works in this direction in the urban area (Ex: urban agriculture, social forestry, urban forestry, silviculture, a forestation, urban farming, etc.,) emphasize, either on the marketable returns (food, fodder, revenue), or merely engaging in the development of the forest in the city (19). To get the quick and faster results, introduction of single (some times few) species or exotic plants in large extent, (Ex. Eucalyptus, Lucaena lecocephala, Cassurina equtifolia, etc.), creating many problems in the urban area, such as,
- Loss of biodiversity
- Altering basic cyclic pattern of the local ecosystem – hydrological cycle, nutrient cycle
- Monotonous in the visual environment
- Some species do not allow the other species to grow near by, so that it slowly replacing the local species.
- Monoculture – susceptible for environmental problems such as prone to climatic change and diseases.
- Impoverishment / nutrients imbalance of the soil due to over consumption of the particular minerals and nutrients.
- Often its wild and unfriendly in the man made environment.
 Fig 6: Location |
 Fig 7: Proportion |
Design aspects of the city green
Like words, urban trees are powerful symbols, which can produce poetry or confusion depends on the way it is handled. The arrangement, spacing, location and type of species must be identified individually to meet the functional requirement of the each urban space. (16,18). Some of the important design implications to use the city green as design elements in the urban area are,(fig. 2, 3,4,5)
- Transparency / clearance should be given at the pedestrian’s eye level, for visual continuity of the urban space.
- Trees should be used such a way that it should convey a scale that is sympathetic to the nature of the function that is associated with each space.
- Trees should express the particular site wherever it is planting, through the way of its arrangement in terms of unique pattern and rhythm.
- Using single species in a group, which express the collective impact of homogeneity of texture, pattern, light and shade, than an individual tree.
- The consistency between tree pattern and surrounding order can be achieved by geometry or by subtle rhythms.That can be achieved by the following ways
 Fig 8: Barrier |
 Fig 9: Barrier |
Physical Design Principles
This is physical arrangement of trees in the space. Through,
1. Coherence.
2. Organizing,
3. Geometric pattern. (fig. 1)
Abstract Design Principle
This is designer’s pre-conceived idea about creating / ordering spatial organization in the city, it can be divided into following ways 1. Transition .2. Scale 3. Light and shadow.
Spatial composition
Trees are defining the spaces in two different ways, horizontally (by visually enclosing it) and vertically (by creating airy ceiling of branches). Using spatial arrangement in terms of spacing and physical character of the trees it is possible to crate interesting spaces in the city.
 |
 |
Factors Determining The City Green
Deciding the pattern / type of the City green / Landscape involves many technical and design factors.(18)
Table 8.2: Design factors for city green
| S.NO. | FACTORS | DATA TYPE |
| 1 | Aesthetic / Functional Criteria | |
| 2 | Cultural criteria | |
| 3 | Operational criteria | |
| 4 | Geophysical criteria(In local level it is altered by man drastically) | |
| 5 | Socio-economic criteria |
Technical factors
As the natural element, development of the green spaces in the urban areas depends on the natural (scientific) and manmade factors at the regional level. (Table 8.1)
Design factors
Design factors highly defined by the functional requirement of the location, (for example, with in the small house plot itself functional demand vary from the front to back side of the building) and the user pattern and the building type where it associates (16).(fig.6,7,8,9,10). The design factors can be divided into
Environmental factors
Apart form the above factors; the local urban environment condition is the prime factors (13) in determine the City’s green
The perfect compromise should be achieved between the above factors in order to develop an appropriate city green system to make our cities sustainable.
Roll of GIS / RS in developing the city green
Selection of appropriate City’s green system involves number of selection criteria and different disciplines, which is tedious job for a planner / designer to do manually, and it is a time consuming process. Handling all these criteria and data types from the different discipline demands sophisticated tool. The entry of RS / GIS / GPS enabled the planners /designers to acquire and analysis different data in variety of fashions.
Table 8.3 Emvironmental factors determining the city green
| S.NO. | FACTORS | DATA TYPE |
| 1 | Air: | Composition, humidity, pollution, suspended solids, temperature, |
| 2 | Water | pH, flooding, run off, pollution, ground water table level and recharge, surface water body |
| 3 | Land: | Soil composition, soil erosion, pollution, contamination, amount of permeable space, open land, |
| 4 | Urban climate | Heat island, diurnal temperature variations, and wind pattern, precipitation. |
Remote Sensing
The development of an appropriate city green system demands many basic spatial information from different disciplines in the regional scale, such as soil map, climatic maps, topographic maps, vegetative maps, land use maps, land cover maps, etc. (Table 8.1, Table 8.2, Table 8.3). Collection of all this information in the conventional method required huge manpower and it is time-consuming process. The remote sensing facilitates us to collect all this biological and physical information across the disciplines in the regional level through aerial photographs / satellite pictures directly and frequently (30).
Geographical Information System
The selection of particular tree for particular location involves multiple multilevel queries of the spatial and attribute data. To this in manually is the exasperating and tough to find alternatives. GIS assist us in handling all this data simultaneously as we desire and it is easy to find alternatives. GIS handles number of spatial objects, their properties, and their interrelationships to each other. And enabling us to store, process and visualizes current and old information. The stored digital map information of the GIS database can be plot in the required formatted, to produce a map. Retrieval, manipulation and display of all these data are possible through set of GIS tools. (29) such as
- Automated mapping technology. : Help us in handling different spatial map information system easily.
- Data base management: help us in handling variety of attribute data.
- Land records information: Helps in handling the cartographic and attribute data accurately and completely, location specific
- Topological data structures: Helps in handling the spatial relationships among point, lines, and polygon features.
- Spatial analysis capabilities. Helps in retrieve, manipulate and display map and location related attribute data
Through data merging
The information in the digitized form (such as soil map, climatic maps, topographic maps, vegetative maps, land use maps, land cover maps, etc.) can be merged with one another, in layer form, using the common database such as boundary map, village map or road maps. (28) Through this merging technique we can identify potential area to improve the green systems and set of plant list for that particular areas.
Through querying
To identifying the particular plant for particular location is needs data like functional (design) factors, environmental factors. Through developing an algorithms we can do a spatial query to find out appropriate plant for “a location “ in the city / individual plot. For example: selection of a tree list for a plot involves set of queries like,
- What are the possible plants list available for that region?
- What are the physical characteristics of the plants?
- What type of maintenances required by each plant?
- What type of building? Public or private?
- How much area available?
- What are the geophysical attributes of the sites?
- What are the functional requirements of the each space?
- For shading, for screening (view, sun), creating an out door room, aesthetic, edging the property, color, etc.
- What is the dsign requirement?
- Height of the plant, color of the plant, growth pattern, special qualities,
- What are the environmental goals?
- For flood control, to protect the soil, improve the soil condition, increase
All this queries involves many features i.e. point features, line features, polygon features
Methodology
Conculution
Since city green plays multiple rolls in the human landscape, integration of the CITY GREEN in our urban system would be the first step towards our sustainability. Finding appropriate city green system for healthy and effective city can be possible only through GIS / GPS, RS.
Acknowledgement
Without the encouragement and support of Dr. S.P.Sekar, Asst. Professor, SAP,Anna University, it would not be so comprehensive.
References
- G.TYLER MILLER Jr -Living in the Environment, Principles, Connections and solution, 3rd Edition, Words Worth publishing company, Belmont California. (1)
- THOMAS R.DETWYLER AND MELVIN.G, Urbanization and Environment, (2) Duxbury press.
- TWPR-Third world planning Review Vol-17 Feb 1995. (3)
- K.C. Sivarama Krishnan Managing Urban Environment India towards an agenda for action, Vol-3, Industry, energy, Transport and air -. The Times research foundation. (4)
- Study of Impacts of industrialization on the Urban and Rural Environment in Madras Metropolitan areas. -Sponsored by ministry of Environment and Forest Gov. of India, Submitted by IRS, Anna University, Chennai. (5)
- The warth of Nature. The impact of environmental destruction on floods and Droughts. Presented by – Center for Science and Environment to the members of parliament of India, with support of Dept of Environment forest and wild life. (6)
- The Faculty up gradation program in Environmental Economics under the World Bank. -Ministry of Economics and Forest, Govt. of India. Capacity building, Technical assistance projects. at Madras school of Economics. (7)
- Madhav gadgil and Ramachandra guha The use and abuse of Nature, , Oxford University press. Measuring environmental degradation, developing pressure indicator for Europe, Editors: Anil Markandya and Nick dale, Edward Elgar publishers, USA. (8)
- Spenser w. Havlick The urban Organism. (9)
- Helnment E.Landsberg The Urban Climate, Academic press publishers N.York (10)
- R.K. Jain, Rita Auza. Editor International Conference on Planning for 21st century, Concepts and System, (11)
- Ian l.Mcharg Design with nature, John Wiley & Sons. Inc, New York. (12)
- Ian Doughlas -The urban environment –, Edward Arnold (publishers) ltd. (13)
- Michael Hough. City form and Natural process – Towards a new vernacular “, Croom Helen, London. (14)
- Brian Hackett- Landscape Planning – an introduction to theory and practice,Oriel Press, UGC (15)
- Henry F. Arnold -Trees in Urban Design, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York. (16)
- M.S. Randhawa, DSc.,I.C.S- Beautiful Trees and Gardens, Indian Council of Agricultural Research ,New Delhi (17)
- Brian Hackett -Planting Design, McGraw – Hill book Company, New York. (18)
- Birla Institute of Scientific research- Social forestry in India –Problems and proposals, economic Research Divition. (19)
- David Kenneth Bulton &Peter Nijkamp.Jorge(editors) Environment , Land use and Urban Policy, Earthscan Publications, London (20)
- E.Hardoy, Diana Mitlin and David Satterthwaite (1992) –“ The Rural, Regional and Global Impacts of Cities in Africa, Asia and Latin America” , Chapter 4,Environmental Problems in Third World Cities, Earthscan Publications, London (21)
- Anil Markandya & Nick Dale (Editors) –“ Environmental Degradation-Developing pressure indicators for Europe”, published by Edward Elgar, USA. (22)
- Ecological Economics Vol.32, Vol.37,Vol.38, (23)
- Per Bolund , Sven Hunhamar – “ Ecosystem services In Urban Areas”, pp 293-301,Ecological Economics Vol.29(1999) (24)
- Rudolf S. de Groot,-“Environmental Functions and the Economic values of Natural Ecosystem” Environment , Land use and Urban Policy- Edited by David Kenneth Bulton &Peter Nijkamp.Jorge (25)
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