Change is inevitable, whether it concerns individuals, organisations or societies. What we are concerned with is whether we can manage this change. This paper talks about management of the transfer of technology, which involves the active participation of user organisations and the technologists who make things happen (that are in the best interest of both the users and the technologists).
Management Model for Technology Transfer
We will concentrate here on technologic change and its effects. The management model presented here is heuristic and attempts to deal with technology change in a diagnostic manner. The proposed model is shown in Figure 1. In this model, five subsystems are enumerated:
- defining needs/problems and their priorities
- technology: the solution package
- people: their culture, technical profile, level of competence and motivation
- organisation: the structure, charter of duties, traditions, professional domain/ competition/ cooperation with other organisations.
- government policies affecting technology, eg, restrictive policies, national priorities, major political events.
Identifying Technological needs of the user organisations
It is essential to complete this phase of activity before we specify or select the technology to be introduced, and we need to concentrate on real, not demands. It is the common experience of service organisations, such as the Forest Survey of India and Survey of India, etc, that user organisations formulate rather unrealistic objectives. In the Survey, a good example is the demand for very large-scale maps. What the user really needs is only a large working space and not a large-scale map. It should be realized that efforts to produce a large-scale map are many times greater than producing a simple enlargment. Another example is the demand for too frequent monitoring of physical phenomena. Forest monitoring every two years falls into this category. Requests for too many features or colours on the map are similar examples. Many more examples can be cited which are contrary to the surveying principle of “needless refinement need not be resorted to.”
Since the resources in government departments for surveys in India are limited and the private sector remains in infancy, the “demand” must be properly “massaged”, so to say, to arrive at the real needs. This is done by establishing a meaningful dialogue, preferably with a group of three of four persons at different hierarchial levels. Only thus can we identify the potential needs of organisations in a methodical manner.
Specifications of Products/Services
Products and services should primarily suit the “user” and not the “customer”. There is a lot of confusion about these two terms. The customer is that person who pays for the products and may not (generally does not) use the product himself. The “user”, on the other hand, really makes use of the products.
For example, the Wasteland Board of India ordered satellite images to be used for determining the wasteland around villages. The ultimate user was supposed to be the village official but turned out to be other organisations. The objective of extending satellite technology to the “user” remained partially operative.
Fig. 1: Management model for technology transfer
Further Refinement of user needs
This work is equivalent of doing market research by business organisations, who even spend substantial amounts of money by employing outside agencies. De Man (2) offered the following suggestions in this regard:
- In order to identify users, an inventory should be made of existing flows and utilisation of data and information.
- pilot surveys should be conducted in collaboration with the users to facilitate identifying the needs of the users.
- the type of utilisation of products/services has a bearing on user needs; is the product needed for research, inventory, monitoring or evaluation.
- the required degree of accuracy, precision and resolution in data should be identified.
- support systems for the users should be identified, ie, logistics, availability of finance, training, etc.
Programmes and Plans – Deeper study
The five-year plans and annual plans of user departments in India are the best sources of information on long-range activities of these organisations. In addition, annual reports provide useful information on the levels of technology and productivity of the organisation. In fact, an annual report is the best source of information about the strength and most importantly whether the available infrastructure can absorb the technological change.
Priority of problems
It is most vital to know the priorities of the user’s problems for which the technologic package is to be designed. Priority can be generated by internal factors of the organisation, or it can be generated by external ones. For example, aid agencies such as the World Bank, FAO, etc, insist on certain types of maps for “assessments”. The demand of the World Bank then becomes a “priority” problem to be solved by the technology.
Technology – finding solutions for users problems
One of the keywords here is appropriateness. Introducing new technology is justified only on the basis of increasing productivity, the smoothness of operations, support to decision-making and to some extent, enhancement of the organisation’s image. Productivity can be measured according to the following four attributes: quality, quantity, cost and reliability.
Many conventional practices, including cost/benefit ratios can also be used for determining increases in productivity. The upshot of all this is that the “betterness” of a new technology is to be proved before it is adopted.
Acceptability, it seems, is the least concern of engineers and scientists. They feel that if a technology is right for society or an organisation, it should also be acceptable to them. In my experience, the “very right” may not be acceptable to the receiving organisation. It is possible (albeit not easy) to develop a more acceptable package/mix of technology if the subject is discussed thoroughly by the “donors of technology” and its users. Other considerations (mentioned elsewhere) affecting individuals in the change process have to be taken into account before a technology package is recommended. The element of acceptability is a complex one and does not often respond to very structured thought processes. There are many instances where acceptance or non-acceptance of technology has played a major role (if not havoc) in the introduction of new technology. It may be more prudent to transfer of technology in small doses rather than to pass on the latest know-how in one step.
The documentation of technology enables the reader to distinguish whether the technology is at production, operational, quasi-operational or at R & D stage. There are many instances where a technology while still at R & D stage is transferred as a production-level package.
A joint R & D programme between the donor and receiver is another way to transfer technology. In such a case the technology, in original or more often in modified form, is tested in actual conditions. The donor gains a better insight into the problems of the organisation. R & D projects between organisations of developing countries is another effective model.
