To share or not to share Attitudes and mindsets vis-à-vis spatial

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To share or not to share Attitudes and mindsets vis-à-vis spatial data

In the light of experience so far and anecdotal evidence suggesting that there are considerable non-technical barriers that are likely to discourage data sharing, it is important to systematically explore and assess what the factors are that contribute to such resistance. However, these non-technical factors - i.e. the behavioural and perceptual issues that are likely to strongly influence data sharing behaviour - require careful consideration. The nature of these perceptions should not be generalised across organisations without recourse to an empirical investigation that permits validation of some of these assumptions and that provides a basis for generalisation.

Therefore the issue of spatial data sharing needs to be explored from a perspective that focuses on the various positions that individuals in different organisations take towards spatial data sharing and on why they take these positions. An improved understanding of the importance of various factors can be used to motivate greater spatial data sharing among organisations at local, regional, national or global levels. The results of such research can provide an improved basis for generating specific guidelines as to how the social aspects of spatial data sharing can be addressed more effectively within the framework of these initiatives.

How can we research attitudes and mindsets?
The growing importance of spatial data availability and data access for the effective use of GIS has begun to generate a branch of literature that focuses directly on the issue of spatial data sharing. While this work offers insights into some of the factors that may influence individuals’ engagement in spatial data sharing activities, it does not provide a systematic account of the social aspects of this behaviour or the beliefs that individuals involved with the generation and use of spatial data may hold.

Research within the discipline of behavioural science deals with decision making in the general context of predicting and explaining behaviour and the research on attitudes is a central consideration within this body of work. It focuses on subjective perceptions of individuals rather than on objective observations to explain behaviour. Beliefs are understood as providing the subjective basis for individuals’ decisions. Although people are assumed to hold a great number of beliefs about a particular behaviour, only a small number, the so-called salient beliefs, are expected to be the predominant determinants of intention and action. “It is at the level of beliefs that we can learn about the unique factors that induce one person to engage in the behavior of interest and to prompt another to follow a different course of action.” (Ajzen 1991: 206-207). Drawing on this field of research, a framework has been developed for examining the factors that influence individuals’ willingness to engage in spatial data sharing (Wehn de Montalvo 2001, 2002). The main theoretical constructs that are developed and operationalised are the elements of ‘attitude towards the behaviour’, ‘social norm’ and ‘perceived control over the behaviour’. Empirical evidence with respect to these constructs can indicate how they influence the willingness of individuals (or organisations) to engage in a particular behaviour. Beliefs are assumed to provide the basis for the formation of each of these constructs, i.e. ‘attitude towards spatial data sharing’, ‘social norm’ and ‘perceived control over the sharing process’.

This approach can be applied in a real-life situation to capture perceptions of the motivation of individuals embedded in organisations to engage in spatial data sharing. A model of spatial data sharing is constructed and the antecedents of the main components of the model are traced to the underlying beliefs. The principal aim of this kind of research is to examine the nature of the conditions under which the different actors involved with spatial data are likely to be willing to share the data across organisational boundaries to overcome bottlenecks in the availability of, and access to, spatial data so that GIS can be used more effectively. The resulting insights are expected to encourage policy developments that promote a behaviour that has the potential to increase the use of GIS w hich is widely regarded as being a useful tool for decision-makers in developing countries (Schwabe et al., 1998). The basis for the research is provided by the views of representative individuals and the interpretation of these views as indicators of likely organisational behaviour. The selection of key individuals from different organisations is based on the assumption that these decision makers can be expected to have a reasonably accurate understanding of their organisation’s position on spatial data sharing matters. Therefore, their responses to questions about their beliefs and behaviour provide a good indicator of their organisations’ expected or planning behaviour. In this respect, the individual’s perception can be taken to be consistent with the collective view of an organisation.

By studying key decision makers embedded in their organisations rather than focusing in-depth on all aspects of individual behaviour within an organisation, the research is not limited to investigating a very few organisations and there is a basis for generalisations to be drawn from the research results that is greater than would be the case if the research strategy employed a small number of in-depth case studies. A range of individuals and organisations can be included in the sample with the goal of examining their dispositions towards spatial data sharing across organisational boundaries. This research strategy provides a means to extend the analysis to encompass a larger arena (Markus & Robey, 1988), for example, the full scope of a single national spatial data infrastructure and a representative sample of its participants.

What are the new insights to foster spatial data sharing?
The analysis of empirical data identifies which of the factors are most likely to influence the willingness of individuals within organisations to share spatial data. Moreover, it identifies the specific beliefs that appear to influence the willingness of organisations to engage in such behaviour. The results therefore offer a systematic basis for deepening understanding of how spatial data sharing can be fostered. They identify the particular determinants of data sharing that should be taken into account by policy makers, Specifically, the results provide insights into why key individuals within GIS-using organisations believe their organisations are likely to gain or lose from engaging in spatial data sharing; whether they think those who are important referents for their organisations want them to share spatial data; and what control in terms of skills, capabilities, resources and appropriability of benefits they perceive that their organisations have over the sharing process.

For example, with respect to the spatial data sharing initiative in South Africa, this research approach has revealed that, in summary, it is important that it refers to specific incentives that influence sharing rather than merely to general benefits of engaging in spatial data sharing, thereby going beyond a mere cost-benefit analysis. Moreover, fostering greater spatial data sharing so that GIS can be used more effectively, the disincentives encountered by individuals (and organisations) also need to be addressed. In particular, it is important to address and reduce the fears that decision makers within organisations associate with losing control over the use of spatial data. When a profile of such perceptions is established, it provides a basis for specific suggestions how efforts to improve the current spatial data sharing initiatives might encourage greater spatial data sharing, thus addressing the issue of spatial data sharing more effectively at the policy making level.

Conclusions
While the technical aspects that are currently the focus of attention in the context of spatial data sharing initiatives - such as the interoperability of spatial data sets, the establishment of standards, consistent pricing policies and the implementation of clearinghouses - are necessary elements, it cannot be expected that their resolution will be sufficient to overcome the obstacles to spatial data sharing across organisational boundaries. It has been argued here that it is also necessary to identify the existing incentives and disincentives for participating in spatial data sharing that may be present within given communities of GIS-using organisations.

References

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Longley, P.A., Goodchild, M.F., Maguire, D.J, and Rhind, D.W. (1999) “Introduction” in P.A, Longley, M.F Goodchild, D.J. Maguire, and D.W. Rhind (eds) Geographical Information Systems – Principles and Technical Issues, vol.1, New York: John Wiley & Sons, pp.1-20.
Markus, M. L. and Robey, D. (1988) “Information Technology and Organizational Change: Causal Structure in Theory and Research”, Management Science, vol. 34(5), pp. 583-598.
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Rhind, D. (1999) ‘National and international geospatial data policies’ in P.A, Longley, M.F Goodchild, D.J. Maguire, and D.W. Rhind (eds) Geographical Information Systems – Principles and Technical Issues, vol.1, New York: John Wiley & Sons, pp.767-787.
Schwabe, C., O’Leary, B., and Sukai, S.B. (1998) ‘Putting all the Facts on the Map’, In Focus Forum, vol. 5(3), pp.4-7.
Wehn de Montalvo, U. (2001) 'Using the Theory of Planned Behaviour to Explain Spatial Data Sharing', paper presented at the ESF-NSD Workshop on Access to Geographic Information and Participatory Approaches to Using Geographic Information', Spoleto, 6-8 December.
Wehn de Montalvo, U. (2002) ‘Access to spatial data and the willingness of organisations to share it: A Research Methodology’, in Conference Proceedings, ‘Governance and the use of GIS in developing Countries’, 6th seminar on GIS and Developing Countries (GISDECO), 6th, 15-18May, ITC Enschede, paper no.41.

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