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GISdevelopment.net --> Proceedings --> GISDECO --> 2004
Development and Applications of GIS in Asia Anthony Yeh Chair Professor, Centre of Urban Planning and Environmental Management and Director of GIS Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong, and Secretary-General, Asia GIS Association Introduction Asia is a very large continent, with many countries, which have different political systems and levels of economic development. What happens in Japan is very different from that in China and Malaysia. Because of this, it is very difficult to generalize. In Asia, Japan is one of the early starters of GIS, and is the most advanced user of GIS. Many systems and data are available. In contrast, other countries are just starting to use GIS and developing their digital data. This paper will focus mainly on the development of GIS in some of the developing countries in Asia. GIS has developed quite rapidly in Asia since the publication of my paper “The Development and Applications of Geographic Information Systems for Urban and Regional Planning in the Developing Countries” in 1991 (Yeh, 1991). There has been a marked drop in price of GIS hardware and great increase in computer speed, RAM and storage capacities and software capabilities and user friendliness, software and hardware may be the least important factors in influencing the development of GIS in Asia. GIS research and education are getting much better than before. There are more and more people who know GIS and GIS are getting more usage in government departments. There are also major improvements in the development of local software and the customerization of software into local languages. A lot of the constraints in the use of GIS in the developing countries are no longer severe constraints. However, as compared to the use of GIS in the developing countries, the use of GIS in the developing countries in Asia to a large extent is still lagging behind. The main reason is that GIS data is lacking behind (Legault, 1997; Wilson, 1997). The availability and pricing of GIS data and the lack of a GIS data development strategy and policy are the main bottlenecks in GIS development in Asia (Yeh, 1998). GIS is an expensive toy if it cannot have applications and applications cannot be done without data. In most countries, because of heavy initial investment, GIS data are mainly being developed for the needs of different government projects. Some data, especially digitized maps are available to the public mainly as a spin off of government projects. In Western countries, there is increasing use of GIS in business (Grimshaw, 1994, Longley and Clarke, 1995). The applications range from insurance, retail, restaurants, consumer packaged goods, telecommunication, marketing, real estate, transport, and courier services (Sherwood, 1995). Most business data is geographically related. Every business has customers who live somewhere. GIS can help business to process business data that are geographically related and carried out forward strategic planning. The increase in the use of GIS in business is partly because of the availability of data and partly because many companies see the advantage of using GIS in their work. Many different forms of data are available and CD-ROM is the most common medium for the transfer of digital data. The government national mapping agencies and statistics bureaus prepare most of the data. Because of the market of GIS data for business and other uses, “value-added” data products are also developed by value-added resellers who integrate different data sets and aggregate statistics to different areas for use by a particular market and provide custom made software for users to carry out their own analysis. The richness and diversity of data sets and products, that range from maps, statistics and street networks, for countries in the European Union is one the reasons for the increasing use of GIS in Europe (Waters, 1995). The cost and ease of transfer of the types of data which business may need is also another contributing factor in the flourish of the use of GIS in business (Waters, 1995). Road centre-lines, which are essential for transport, related service industries are available for the whole of Europe from different suppliers with built-in PC-based route-finding packages. The pricing and availability of GIS data are highly influenced by the interactions of economics, legal issues and public policies (Rhind, 1992 and 1996). The pricing of data is very important in the use of GIS data. Expensive data will make it use less than cheaper data. There are two main practices. One is to treat GIS data as part of public services, which the taxpayers have already paid for the services. GIS data are available at a very low cost, basically the media and handling costs, such as those in the United States. The other pricing practice is to charge GIS data at a cost recovery bases and the charges are much higher than those in the United States, such as GIS data in the UK. Many local governments are seeing the selling of geographical data as a potential source of income. When we discuss data availability and pricing, we have to discuss the availability of different scales of map and data content. It can be generalized that except Japan, most countries are slow in making data available commercially. Ironically, third parties in a country and even those in foreign countries are digitizing and making GIS data available to users. The problem of their data is the map scale, coordinate system, accuracy, and currency of their data. Sometimes their data are very difficult to register with other base maps, limiting their use when the integration with other data is needed. Characteristics of the Availability of Data in Asia National Security Because of political instability and war, many countries in Asia, such as South Korea, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, and People’s Republic of China, still treat maps and aerial photos, not to mention digital map, which could have more use in modern warfare, as national security for defense purpose. They regulate the use of maps and aerial photographs. Maps larger than a certain scale and area of military significance are classified and need high-level clearance before they can be used. Unauthorized possession and taking of maps and aerial photos outside the country can be considered as espionage with jail sentence. They afraid that large-scale digital maps will be used in war against them. Such attitude and practice make data to be unavailable at scale larger than 1:1,000,000. However, with the advancement of the GPS and remote sensing technology, we will be able to obtain very precise map of any scale and any country in the world. The practice is a bit out-of-date with the development of GIS, GPS and remote sensing technology, especially the availability of 1 m. resolution commercial remote sensing images. Underestimation of the Time Needed for Data Conversion and Cost of Maintenance Very often, data conversion takes a long time to complete because of the underestimation of the time and resources in data conversion. Take Hong Kong for example, it takes almost 10 years to digitize the 1:1,000 base maps. This makes data to be slow to be available to the users. Type of Available Data Most of the data available are related to the physical surface of the earth, such as topography and land use, because these data are readily available in paper form in the past. The paper maps are converted into digital form. These data are useful for some purposes, but they are of little use to business applications, which need socio-economic data and address matching facilities that are often not available. This is a big contract to that of the United States where the US Bureau of Census is one of the major developers and providers of GIS data for the business communities. Some of the administrative boundaries are in line form and not topological data and a lot of efforts have to be carried before they can be used by GIS and mapping software. Third Party Data Because of the slowness in providing GIS data by the government, very often-utility companies and other users have to do the data conversion to fit their own needs while waiting for the more accurate government data to be made available. These data are either converted through digitizing and scanning. If the maps are scanned, they do not need to be vectorized. The raster images can be viewed on the screen as background image for overlaying vector data sets. The scanned map image can be registered and georeferenced and layers of utility lines are superimposed on the map images. This method is also quite commonly used in the production of digital atlas in which paper maps are scanned and georeferenced with additional information added on to the layers of the map images. This is the fastest way for making GIS data available. These data sets vary in quality, accuracy, and currency of the data, which are vital considerations in making them useful. Because of the need of the users such as researchers and businessmen in the region and the difficulties in obtaining these data outside the country or Asia, there are third parties, which develop data set for the region. Software companies, such as ERSI (Arc/Info) and MapInfo have produced CD-ROMs containing small-scale topographic maps of some countries in Asia with administrative boundaries for users to add on their own data. The Digital Chart of the World (DCW) and the Australian Centre of the Asian Spatial Information and Analysis Network also make digital georeferenced data available to the international community. Pricing of Data Many producers are aiming at cost recovery and very often overcharge. They do not consider data as public services. Take Hong Kong for example, the price of all the 3,207 1:1,000 map sheets of Hong Kong cost more than US$0.41 million, each costing US$128. The high price in GIS data is understandable in some countries. The pricing of data has to take piracy into account. In order to offset the possibility of being copied and used unlawfully, the price are set high so that in case some of the data are pirated, they can still be able to recover the cost. Some government departments, such as those in China, have to make money in order to survive and to maintain the expensive GIS hardware and software and data updating. Apart from the unavailability of socio-economic data that are needed by business, the high cost in buying the digital georeferenced data is also one of the main hindrances in the use of GIS in business in Asia. Pricing of Software GIS Software is still relatively expensive, compared with other type of software. This makes the number of users to be very little and makes the price of data goes up because of limited users. Data Format Some of the data are not in formats that are readily imported into a GIS or mapping software. Much effort is needed in converting them to the format that can be used in GIS or mapping software. The socio-economic statistics which the business community need most are often not available in a format that can be readily linked with the digital administrative boundaries or imported to a GIS or mapping software. Data Compatibility Some of the data, especially those produced by third parties, cannot be overlaid on government digital data because they were separately created. The problem of data compatibility is diminishing because many national mapping agencies are producing digital base maps where users can use them to add data on it or link their data to it. Copyright and Piracy Same as other type of data, georeferenced data theft is becoming an important issue (Rhind, 1966). Asia, in general, has a poor record of the protection of intellectual property rights. Piracy of software is quite serious in Asia. This does not only apply to software but data as well. Paper maps are considered to be copyrighted and this can be extended to digital maps as well. But, in some countries, it is difficult to enforce copyright even on paper maps. Freedom of Information One of the main distinctions of the countries in Asia from those in West is the freedom of information, especially the Freedom of Information Act. In the United States, the Freedom of Information Act allows open access to nearly all government-owned information. Government GIS data, such as TIGER files, are available to the public at a reasonable price. This is still not very common in Asia. People do not have the right or culture of getting government data. Data are regarded as sacred. GIS data, which are related to government data, are also not readily available. Lack of Clearing House and Information It is difficult to find out information about GIS data in most countries in Asia. There is a lack of clearing house, which provides information on the price and where to purchase the data. Attempts have been made such as the Japan Map Centre in Japan and the Land Data Hub in Singapore to provide a central clearinghouse at least for all government digital georeferenced data. Need for a Georeferenced Data Development Strategy The main issues of GIS data development are:
Participation of Users at Early Stage of GIS Projects Information systems serve a purpose and how good they are depends upon how well they serve that purpose. Their designs should be based on a clear understanding of who is going to use the system, what will it be used for, and how will it be used (Cartwright, 1987; De Man, 1988). There is a need to determine what type of data is needed to be stored and shared in the GIS. Are they available? Can they be stored in GIS and what is the appropriate spatial unit for storing in the GIS? If GIS is to be used effectively, potential users need to be identified at the early stage of development. They have to be involved at the planning stage of the development so that the GIS will contain data that are useful to the users and in a format that can be easily incorporated into the GIS and mapping packages. Incremental and Basic Mapping Approaches in GIS Development The most important lesson learnt in the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (HABITAT) experience in promoting the use of microcomputers for planning in the developing countries is to take an incremental approach (Cartwright, 1987). It is difficult to build a GIS that is agreeable by all. It is a formidable task in negotiating data definition and format of a comprehensive system involving many different departments. It is also difficult to find funding to finance such mammoth project in which the technology is relatively new and its usefulness has yet to be tested and appreciated by the community. It is better to take an incremental approach and start at a department or agency that utilizes maps and land information system most frequently. The efficiency and effectiveness of the system can then be seen immediately. It will be too risky to develop such a large and costly system. The project may become an investment disaster if it fails. Once a small system is installed, it can serve as a demonstration project to other departments and users, showing the usefulness of the system. A larger system may be evolved from this core system. GIS can be developed in stages. It can first start by better coordination of existing available databases and later progressed towards a more integrated system. At present, databases are scattered in different departments and users have to approach different departments to get the data. As an intermediate step while the design of a more comprehensive management information system is underway, a coordination agency can be set up to coordinate data collection and distribution. Instead of approaching different departments for data, users only need to approach the coordination agency to get their data. The final stage is the development of a central integrated geographic information system where users can directly obtain data from the information system. It is only when such central integrated geographic information system is set up that a GIS information superhighway will be established. The Singapore’s Land Information Hub is moving towards such direction. Digitizing does not have to start at the beginning of a GIS project. It can start simply by the computerization of tabular data with the geocoding necessary for future integration into a GIS while the availability of base maps is under investigation. There is a need for a GIS development strategy with the long-term objective of integrating the databases. Experience in GIS development shows that successful systems are those which are evolving and adapting system. It may not be necessary to develop a very large system at the outset. A simple system can be developed and applied quickly. This can later be evolved into a more sophisticated system with more data and applications. Map is a basic media for addressing and storing spatial data. Most departments and private firms which use and store spatial data do not have their own base maps but often have to rely on surveying and mapping departments. Basic mapping can be used as a starting point of GIS. Once the GIS is operational, its digital base maps can encourage and enable other departments and private firms to integrate their textual data into the system. Apart from saving time, effort, and resource in digitizing and maintaining the base maps, GIS can help the standardization of base maps which is one of the most commonly encountered problems in map overlay analysis when roads, coastlines and boundaries from different sources do not match. Hong Kong has adopted such a strategy in the setting up of the Land Information Centre in the Lands Department in 1989. But, as can be seen in the case of Hong Kong, the availability of base maps alone does not guarantee that these base maps will be able to integrate with the data of other government departments and data suppliers to form an integrated GIS system that is beneficial to the GIS users in the public and private sectors (Figure 1a). It has to be accompanied by a set of central policy on data standard, data exchange, and data availability (Figure 1b). Central Policy on Data Standard, Data Exchange, and Data Availability There is an emerging trend of data standardization in the development of GIS. The National Committee for Digital Cartographic Data Standard (NCDCDS) and the Federal Interagency Coordination Committee on Digital Cartography (FICCDC) tries to establish standards to ensure compatibility among digital spatial data gathered by different agencies (Digital Cartographic Data Standards Task Force, 1988). A similar effort is also being made in the United Kingdom (Rhind, 1986) and Canada (Zarzycki, 1984). Efforts have also been made in developing data exchange standards (Morrison and Wortman, 1992). Recently, the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) is also developing a handbook on GIS standards and standardization procedures for countries in Asia. Although it will take much time and effort to set up data standard for GIS, this is an important and worthwhile task that will greatly facilitate future data sharing and integration of different GIS within a country. A central policy is also needed for data exchange standard and the availability and distribution of data to reduce the duplication of effort in data entry. Setting Up of a GIS Advisory Committee/Steering Group To make data to be available in a format that is usable and compatible with each other, a GIS Advisory Committee/Steering Group is needed to be set up to formulate and implement GIS development policy to integrate different georeferenced data together to form an integrated GIS system (Figure 1b). GIS involves many government departments and users. A formal channel is needed for them to meet regularly to discuss GIS development issues and formulate GIS standards and policies. Experience in some countries shows that GIS Advisory Committee/Steering Group is very useful in GIS development (McLaughlin and Nichols, 1987; Merideth et al., 1987). In the Philippines, the National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA) in coordination with the National Statistical Coordination Board (NCSB) has created the Inter-Agency Task Force on Geographic Information (IATFGI) in 1993 to promote and coordinate the efficient development, management and utilization of geographic information. A GIS Advisory Committee/Steering Group with representatives from different government departments, public utilities, and users in the public and private sectors is needed to coordinate data input, develop data standards, set prices, and formulate data development priorities, phasing, and policies. Without such advisory committee/steering group, the development of georeferenced data will be fragmented and it will take a very long time before the needed data can be available in a desirable format that can be used and shared by different users. Conclusion Asia is developing very rapidly in the last decade and the market for GIS and digital georeferenced data is growing. Many businesses have not seen the advantage of the use of GIS but this will gradually be improved with the development of the service sector. The development of the service sector, especially logisticis industry which is of increasing importance to local, national and world economy because of the need for “just-in-time” pick-up and delivery, will make GIS to be more useful in transport and marketing. Asia is a highly densely populated area. At the city level, people may not need GIS because they know the place so well. But when people go beyond the city, covering a wider area, GIS is needed. There has been much development in the digitization of topographic maps and administrative boundaries in Asia. Apart from the price and the availability of these data to the public, one of the main obstacles in GIS and mapping applications is the paucity of compatible socio-economic data. Some of the data are also not in format that can be easily imported and used by GIS and mapping packages, making them difficult to combine with socio-economic data for mapping and business applications. The development of Web based GIS will make the applications and availability of GIS in Asia faster to come. The availability of Web based GIS will be able to make data available to the public without the need of expensive GIS software. Some real estate agents in Asia in the Web are now using some sorts of georeferenced textual data. Many of them are making good use of web GIS in the form of location map with the display of the searched property with map information of its surrounding neighbourhood and land use zoning plan (www.centamap.com). The worldwide move towards intelligent transport system (ITS) with the increasing use of automobile navigation systems will also make digital georeferenced data to be available faster to meet the needs of this big market. There is a move towards the provision of spatial data infrastructure in Asia. The Permanent Committee on GIS Infrastructure for Asia and the Pacific was formed recently. It is comprised of directors of national surveying and mapping organizations of the countries. The objectives of the Permanent Committee are to form a regional spatial data infrastructure and to be part of the global spatial data infrastructure. One of the concerns of the Committee is data standards and interoperability. The major barrier to the availability of data is the attitude of some governments towards data security. With the commercial availability of remote sensing data of 0.6 to 1 m., such as IKONOS and QuickBird and the increase of the resolution of general GPS to 10m, it is very easy to prepare a 1:5,000 digital GIS base map and data. Over control of GIS data is no longer very meaningful for national security. It will only limit the applications of GIS in business and daily uses and not facilitating economic development and daily uses which GIS can be of great services. Perhaps these countries can use an incremental strategy in making GIS data available. They can make 1:5,000 digital maps with highly generalized boundaries and attributes available for vehicle navigation and web GIS purposes for selected cities which are already open to foreigners and where GIS can help to promote economic development, such as the special economic development zones and open cities in China and big cities and in Asia.. Similarly that can make 1:20,000 digital maps with highly generalized boundaries and attributes available to region with have a vibrant logistics industry. There is also a general lack of data development policy for most countries. Different departments without centrally coordinated effort are developing GIS data. There is a need for a well-coordinated strategy in developing GIS data (Yeh, 1996). Very often, data that are needed by the private sector, such as socio-economic data are not readily available or in a format that is not readily usable by GIS and mapping software. There is a need for an institutionalized coordination at the top government level. Many governments have overlooked the contributions of GIS data in economic development, especially the development of the service industries and are slow in supplying the much needed georeferenced socio-economic data or supplying them at a price that scared off many applications. With lower price of GIS data, the government may get back the same economic return, but more people and industries will benefit from the GIS technology (Figure 2). It is only when the type of data needed by the private sector are available at an easily affordable price that GIS will be more useful in Asia, making GIS technology to be able to serve the people and economic development of Asia – a role that GIS should play in modern society. References Cartwright, T.J. (1987) “Information Systems for Planning in Developing Countries: Some Lessons from the Experience of the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat)”, Habitat International, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 191 205. De Man, W.H. Erik (1988) “Establishing a Geographical Information System in Relation to Its Use: a Process of Strategic Choices”, International Journal of Geographical Information Systems, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 245 261. 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