|
Web-based GIS For Collaborative Planning And
Public Participation Toward Better Governance Information technology development during 1960’s pertaining the providing the information needed for a value-and politically neutral process of “rational” planning and can be viewed broadly as an evolving concern with data, in which the prevailing technology was batch processing of custom design, single-purpose, and transaction based information systems on mainframe computers. The emphasis changed in the 1970’s whereby the concern is more toward conversion of data into meaningful form known as information. In relation, data processing for operational needs shifted to Management Information Systems (MIS), Urban Information System (UIS), Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Land Information System (LIS). However, the change of approach from information to knowledge in the 1980’s and toward intelligence-based information technology in the 1990’s reflected to decision makers on desire for analytical modelling capabilities and Planning Support System (PSS) to facilitate collective design, social interaction, interpersonal communication and a community debate (Brail, 2001). Although computers have been applied in urban planning almost since their inception, only recently with the development of graphics, distributed processing, and network communications has software emerged that can now be used routinely and effectively. At the basis of these developments are geographic information systems (GIS) but gradually, these are being adapted to the kind of decision and management functions that lie at the heart of the planning process (Batty and Densham, 1996). GIS for Public Participation The notion of Malaysian public involvement in planning can be traced to the Town Board Enactment of the Federated Malay States of 1927. It provides for the general town plan to be displayed to the public to make objections and propose recommendation on how to overcome the objections. Later the Town Board Enactment 1930 (which are still applicable in some parts of the country) provides similar arrangements for public involvement. In all these cases, the public was only allowed to participate after a draft plan has been completed. The Town and Country Planning Act (TCP Act), 1976 which succeeded the Town Board Enactment was the only significant planning legislation which covers all local authorities in Peninsular Malaysia. The rationale of the TCP Act 1976 was basically to replace the Town Board Enactment which was considered extremely physical in approach and too rigid in accommodating changes in socio-economic needs for a country experiencing rapid development. The 1976 Act essentially provide for public participation in these stages:
Public participation in Malaysia has been quite successful in informing the public about the development plan of their respective area. However, more significant contribution from the public is desirable to improve the relationship with the authority, which would facilitate better development effort for the country (Shamsudin, 1994). The idea of having public participation through GIS application was originated in mid-1990s by Onsrud, Schroeder and Lopez of the University of Maine whose workshop on the subject of how to improve access to GIS among non-governmental organisations and individuals, especially those who have been historically under-represented in public policy making, yielded the result that the phrase public participation GIS (PPGIS) has seen been used to describe a variety of approaches to come up with tools related to GIS and other spatial decision-making and accessible to all those with a stake in official decisions (Schroeder, 1997). PPGIS has since been extended to cover various fields and branches to include user interface customisation, access to GIS network, use of GIS as user communication media, producing of spatial data through information sharing, public access to digital data, and other activities without the need for skills and costly development of information technology (NCGIA, 1996). Apparently, the web-based GIS technology has played an important role in encouraging public participation. The GIS approach to public participation is seen able to handle the problem base on integration of GIS analysis and open public communication through proposals and objection from the public perspective. The capability in simplifying access and management of data has led to the implementation of data sharing between government organisations and local groups involved. Web-based GIS as means for Consensus Building Between Stakeholders In planning, obtaining relevant information is crucial for the purpose of decision-making and good information would certainly lead to better decision. However, relevant information is usually unavailable due to factors such as lack of effectiveness in information sharing and communication between stakeholders. Nevertheless, this problem is believed to be overcome through the concept of consensus building which is further accelerated with support from information system technology.  Figure 1: Barriers to effective planning and strategies for addressing them (Baxmann, http://www.spatial.maine.edu/ucgis/testproc/baxmann/baxmann.html ) Consensus building is evolving as a key strategy in helping overcome communication barriers in planning. Defined as a voluntary effort involving informal, face-to-face interaction between stakeholder representatives (Susskind and Cruikshank, 1987), it is seen as an "all-gain" as opposed to conventional "win-lose" decision-making. Participants seek to satisfy their interests within the context of other stakeholders' interests through integrative bargaining. The approach to public participation through web base GIS is meant to incorporate diverse stakeholder viewpoints (e.g., citizens, taxpayers, public interest groups, disenfranchised parties, government, private sector, etc.) by utilizing emerging information infrastructure and appropriate technologies suitable for multi-party communication and decision making. The process orientation of this approach would not strive toward general agreement among participants, but rather would afford a forum for effective expression of views which enhance fair, efficient and wise outcomes. Current approaches to addressing these situations include (Kingston, 1998):
In general, the above situations encourage user, especially the public to express their views on development planning scenario especially that involving local environment, to the local authorities or stakeholders concerned. On the other hand, collaborative interaction on planning among stakeholders will advocate a group decision-making environment. The use of web-based GIS is seen as the best approach in overcoming the uncertainty, contradiction and disputes involved in the planning process. It provides huge potential for improving the planning system especially in terms of transparency and accessibility and consequently contributes to better governance. DEVELOPMENT OF GIS WEB APPLICATION There is currently a variety of software that could be used to develop a web-base GIS application. Among the common ones include ArcIMS, ArcExplorer, MapObjects, MapGuide, MapExtreme, GeoMedia Web, Spatial WebBroker and few others. Each of the software is slightly different in approach and varies in terms of the underlying architecture and programming language used. Here, example of the development process of GIS web application will be discussed in brief with reference to the use of ArcIMS software. Base on the ArcIMS software approach, the ArcXML, Javascript and HTML programming language were used through integration of the author, designer and administration modules provided which made the development of application easier and more organized (ESRI, 2000a; 2000b). The preparation of maps and services is the first stage involved in the Author module to enable the display of maps via internet. Each map layer is prepared base on the data and user requirement. Appropriate symbols and colour is assigned to ensure the result displayed fulfils the criteria and features required. Next, the map layers will be compiled and stored in a service to ease user access to the application server. Meanwhile, the designer module facilitates the preparation of appropriate and specific interface through applying certain functions and operations involving combination of design for maps visualisation, functional and operational buttons, attributes display and user dialogues. This module provides simple and attractive framework design through generation of appropriate functions and customisations of existing windows. The administration module, on the other hand, enables easy management and maintenance of the map service stored in the web server. This module helps ensure efficient access by users to the maps provided. This module also enables updating of service, configuration settings for data sharing as well as defining of image formats and duration of access by users. The flow of GIS web development involving the three modules is illustrated in Figure 2.  Figure 2: The flow of GIS web development At large, the GIS web developed tends to adopt a one-direction relationship between user and the system whereby the display and operation ability provided through the integration of the three modules only involve communication between the user’s computer and web/application server. Interaction is allowed between request and delivery of existing data only while no subjective responses are allowed from this type of access. In the public participation context, the web base GIS developed should allow for users to give feedbacks and support the decision making process. As such, the GIS web should be customised to take into consideration the suitable data requirement, spatial planning models, ‘GIS’ tools and effective user interaction forms as to enable the users to exercise the followings:
|