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Abstract
The planning and management process involves many stages of decision-making and expertise from various fields and hence necessitates for collaboration among the parties involved apart from public participation for improving information and to facilitate the adaptability of the planning system. This paper outlines current research and the potential of the Internet based GIS as a means of increasing collaborative planning and public participation in decision making. Case studies are provided to illustrate the potential and actual benefit of on-line systems engaging with regional monitoring, state structure plan implementation and development and building control.
INTRODUCTION
The planning and management process involves many stages of decision-making and expertise from various fields and hence necessitates for collaboration among the parties involved. In addition, public participation is essential as a means of improving information and to facilitate the adaptability of the planning system. In Malaysia, the preparation of the development plan called for participation as a value consensus mechanism, not only from the public at large but other agencies to allow data sharing and to ensure more informed decision. Yet factors such as communication and collaboration breakdown due to a lack of trust and inadequate institutional support for communication among stakeholders as well as lack of effective means for public participation do not allow for effective spatial planning. As such there need to be an effective approach and strategy to support consensus-building as well as public participation in the desire to provide better governance. However, GIS data which were made accessible on the Internet by web-based GIS technology, has offered an effective medium for public participation and collaborative planning.
The internet is currently considered an important media. Its ability in enabling users to interact across the network has provided opportunities for retrieval of hypermedia information in an easy and effective way. Through the World Wide Web (WWW) multimedia capabilities, users all over the world has turned this technology into an important media to access and acquire information as well as interact using diverse types of visual representations such as images, maps, diagrams and graphs which are as easy to implement as text supported by graphical interface, sound, video, animation and so forth.
Web-based GIS technology plays an effective role in the presentation and analysing of planning information. Users need not have specific training or software to be able to interact. Its ability in enabling easy and simplified access and without limitation in terms of time and location should be able to increase the number of GIS users and involvement in the planning and development activities. Web-based GIS is expected to cultivate a new working environment in the field of planning through involvement from various agencies and personnel in obtaining common benefits. The sharing of information would be able to facilitate and support the planning agendas and urban management in Malaysia.
NATURE OF PLANNING AND EVOLVING CONCERNS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Decision characterises every stage of the planning and management processes which are based on a generic problem solving process involving problem definition and description, various forms of analysis which might include simulation and modelling, prediction and prescription or design which often involves the evaluation of alternative solutions to the problem. The process takes place across many scales and is clearly `iterative' or `cyclic' in form as the process of implementation of the chosen plan or policy will involve the sequence once again. Processes may be nested within one another while the extent to which different professionals, managers and other decision-making interests are involved through the various stages, depends upon the nature of specific applications and their context (Batty and Densham, 1996).
The nature of planning calls for an effective approach to achieve the desired goals and objectives, evaluate alternative as well as control development programs that are in line with the current and future prospects. In the meantime, the evolving concept of planning has been accompanied by equally fundamental but largely independent changes in the prevailing views of proper information technology in public and private sector organizations (Table 1).
Table 1: Evolving Views of Planning and Information Technology
The introduction of computers into planning in 1950s and 1960s was part of a more fundamental transition from the profession’s traditional concern with the design of the physical city to a new focus on the quantitative techniques and theories of the social sciences. Computers were assumed to play an important role in this task by collecting and storing the required data, proving systems models that could describe the present and project the future, and helping unambiguously to identify the best plan from the range of available alternatives (Harris and Batty, 1993; Brail, 2001).
Information technology development during 1960’s pertaining the providing the information needed for a value-and politically neutral process of “rational” planning and can be viewed broadly as an evolving concern with data, in which the prevailing technology was batch processing of custom design, single-purpose, and transaction based information systems on mainframe computers. The emphasis changed in the 1970’s whereby the concern is more toward conversion of data into meaningful form known as information. In relation, data processing for operational needs shifted to Management Information Systems (MIS), Urban Information System (UIS), Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Land Information System (LIS). However, the change of approach from information to knowledge in the 1980’s and toward intelligence-based information technology in the 1990’s reflected to decision makers on desire for analytical modelling capabilities and Planning Support System (PSS) to facilitate collective design, social interaction, interpersonal communication and a community debate (Brail, 2001).
Although computers have been applied in urban planning almost since their inception, only recently with the development of graphics, distributed processing, and network communications has software emerged that can now be used routinely and effectively. At the basis of these developments are geographic information systems (GIS) but gradually, these are being adapted to the kind of decision and management functions that lie at the heart of the planning process (Batty and Densham, 1996).
GIS for Public Participation
The notion of Malaysian public involvement in planning can be traced to the Town Board Enactment of the Federated Malay States of 1927. It provides for the general town plan to be displayed to the public to make objections and propose recommendation on how to overcome the objections. Later the Town Board Enactment 1930 (which are still applicable in some parts of the country) provides similar arrangements for public involvement. In all these cases, the public was only allowed to participate after a draft plan has been completed.
The Town and Country Planning Act (TCP Act), 1976 which succeeded the Town Board Enactment was the only significant planning legislation which covers all local authorities in Peninsular Malaysia. The rationale of the TCP Act 1976 was basically to replace the Town Board Enactment which was considered extremely physical in approach and too rigid in accommodating changes in socio-economic needs for a country experiencing rapid development. The 1976 Act essentially provide for public participation in these stages:
Public participation in Malaysia has been quite successful in informing the public about the development plan of their respective area. However, more significant contribution from the public is desirable to improve the relationship with the authority, which would facilitate better development effort for the country (Shamsudin, 1994).
The idea of having public participation through GIS application was originated in mid-1990s by Onsrud, Schroeder and Lopez of the University of Maine whose workshop on the subject of how to improve access to GIS among non-governmental organisations and individuals, especially those who have been historically under-represented in public policy making, yielded the result that the phrase public participation GIS (PPGIS) has seen been used to describe a variety of approaches to come up with tools related to GIS and other spatial decision-making and accessible to all those with a stake in official decisions (Schroeder, 1997).
PPGIS has since been extended to cover various fields and branches to include user interface customisation, access to GIS network, use of GIS as user communication media, producing of spatial data through information sharing, public access to digital data, and other activities without the need for skills and costly development of information technology (NCGIA, 1996). Apparently, the web-based GIS technology has played an important role in encouraging public participation. The GIS approach to public participation is seen able to handle the problem base on integration of GIS analysis and open public communication through proposals and objection from the public perspective. The capability in simplifying access and management of data has led to the implementation of data sharing between government organisations and local groups involved.
Web-based GIS as means for Consensus Building Between Stakeholders
In planning, obtaining relevant information is crucial for the purpose of decision-making and good information would certainly lead to better decision. However, relevant information is usually unavailable due to factors such as lack of effectiveness in information sharing and communication between stakeholders. Nevertheless, this problem is believed to be overcome through the concept of consensus building which is further accelerated with support from information system technology.
Figure 1: Barriers to effective planning and strategies for addressing them (Baxmann, http://www.spatial.maine.edu/ucgis/testproc/baxmann/baxmann.html )
Consensus building is evolving as a key strategy in helping overcome communication barriers in planning. Defined as a voluntary effort involving informal, face-to-face interaction between stakeholder representatives (Susskind and Cruikshank, 1987), it is seen as an "all-gain" as opposed to conventional "win-lose" decision-making. Participants seek to satisfy their interests within the context of other stakeholders' interests through integrative bargaining.
The approach to public participation through web base GIS is meant to incorporate diverse stakeholder viewpoints (e.g., citizens, taxpayers, public interest groups, disenfranchised parties, government, private sector, etc.) by utilizing emerging information infrastructure and appropriate technologies suitable for multi-party communication and decision making. The process orientation of this approach would not strive toward general agreement among participants, but rather would afford a forum for effective expression of views which enhance fair, efficient and wise outcomes. Current approaches to addressing these situations include (Kingston, 1998):
In general, the above situations encourage user, especially the public to express their views on development planning scenario especially that involving local environment, to the local authorities or stakeholders concerned. On the other hand, collaborative interaction on planning among stakeholders will advocate a group decision-making environment.
The use of web-based GIS is seen as the best approach in overcoming the uncertainty, contradiction and disputes involved in the planning process. It provides huge potential for improving the planning system especially in terms of transparency and accessibility and consequently contributes to better governance.
DEVELOPMENT OF GIS WEB APPLICATION
There is currently a variety of software that could be used to develop a web-base GIS application. Among the common ones include ArcIMS, ArcExplorer, MapObjects, MapGuide, MapExtreme, GeoMedia Web, Spatial WebBroker and few others. Each of the software is slightly different in approach and varies in terms of the underlying architecture and programming language used. Here, example of the development process of GIS web application will be discussed in brief with reference to the use of ArcIMS software.
Base on the ArcIMS software approach, the ArcXML, Javascript and HTML programming language were used through integration of the author, designer and administration modules provided which made the development of application easier and more organized (ESRI, 2000a; 2000b).
The preparation of maps and services is the first stage involved in the Author module to enable the display of maps via internet. Each map layer is prepared base on the data and user requirement. Appropriate symbols and colour is assigned to ensure the result displayed fulfils the criteria and features required. Next, the map layers will be compiled and stored in a service to ease user access to the application server.
Meanwhile, the designer module facilitates the preparation of appropriate and specific interface through applying certain functions and operations involving combination of design for maps visualisation, functional and operational buttons, attributes display and user dialogues. This module provides simple and attractive framework design through generation of appropriate functions and customisations of existing windows.
The administration module, on the other hand, enables easy management and maintenance of the map service stored in the web server. This module helps ensure efficient access by users to the maps provided. This module also enables updating of service, configuration settings for data sharing as well as defining of image formats and duration of access by users. The flow of GIS web development involving the three modules is illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2: The flow of GIS web development
At large, the GIS web developed tends to adopt a one-direction relationship between user and the system whereby the display and operation ability provided through the integration of the three modules only involve communication between the user’s computer and web/application server. Interaction is allowed between request and delivery of existing data only while no subjective responses are allowed from this type of access.
In the public participation context, the web base GIS developed should allow for users to give feedbacks and support the decision making process. As such, the GIS web should be customised to take into consideration the suitable data requirement, spatial planning models, ‘GIS’ tools and effective user interaction forms as to enable the users to exercise the followings:
Through direct and easy access to the relevant information and learning about all aspects of a decision problem, the user should begin to modify existing ideas and generate new ones which can then be fed back into the system as and when appropriate. Meanwhile, through experimentation with choice alternatives, achievable solution alternatives can be identified and fed into the decision space, while unfeasible or conflict generating alternatives discarded. Formulation of decision choices should aim to maximise consensus and minimise conflict. On the other hand, feedback to users throughout the decision process is essential to inform how and why particular decision choice alternatives have been identified and also keeps clients aware of how they are formulating their decision choices while evaluation and feedback of the system by users is also essential to allow server administrators and designers to improve and clarify the systems (Kingston, 1998).
GIS WEB APPLICATIONS IN PLANNING AND MONITORING OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT – SOME EXAMPLES
In Malaysia, the growing interest of developing web base GIS in the government organisations as well as private sectors has been a positive sign in extending the use of GIS application to the public, apart from allowing for refer and acquiring of geographic information in digital form. The need to obtain views and feedbacks from the public is the main factor that motivates the development of web-based GIS pertaining to their relevant fields or activities. The examples being discussed are GIS web applications at three different planning and management levels that is the regional level, the state level and the local level. Discussion will reflect on the objectives of their development which are base on the organisational functions, targeted users, architecture in brief, and last but not least the functions provided to users. It has to be noted that all the projects discussed are still in the development phase and undergoing further enhancement in term of functions provided to user.
Web-base GIS for Regional Monitoring: The Case of AGISwlk
Application of GIS for Klang Valley Region (AGISwlk) was developed as a planning support system for decision makers in planning and monitoring of the Klang Valley region. The database for AGISwlk was designed and first developed to support eight application modules base on relevant sectors for development planning and monitoring of the region which are built up area, green and recreational area, traffic and transportation, squatter and low cost housing, environment, utilities and community services, industrial and commercial development as well as population and socio-economy. This required as many as ten elements of data including base maps, administrative boundary, physical characteristics, land development, population and socio-economy, environmental quality, traffic and urban transportation, green and recreational area, squatter and low cost housing, as well as public facilities and utilities (Yaakup et al., 1999). Subsequently, the application modules of AGISwlk were developed.
Meanwhile, web-based GIS for Klang Valley or also known as AGISwlk Web was initiated as an extension to the prior developed database and application modules of AGISwlk. While AGISwlk was meant as a planning support system for decision makers in planning and monitoring of the region, the Web-Based GIS is more towards inviting public participation apart from providing information in the form of maps and data for public access, and paving the path for data sharing with agencies having the same interest.
The Web-GIS applications developed for the case of Klang Valley adopted the three-tier client/server architecture comprising three main parts namely Clients, Middleware/Application Server and Data Storage (Yaakup et al., 2001). Two application modules were developed due to serve two different target groups base on the requirement and role of each one. The first module, which is the Public Interactive Maps Application aimed at providing information on Klang Valley apart from inviting public participation from the general public. Meanwhile, the second module also known as the Stakeholder Application was designed for the purpose of data sharing and collaborative planning between government agencies and planning authorities whereby the potential users are government officers. Figure 3 shows the interface for map display via the two applications.
Figure 3: Map display for the two different applications in AGISwlk Web
Using Web-based GIS as a new tool for exchanging and gathering of information brings numerous benefits. It will be a simple way for the public or local governments to provide or exchange spatial information on the Net. The integration of data through distributed data access is expected to minimise data redundancy as well as time and cost of database development (Yaakup and Sulaiman, 2003).
Interactive Maps for Public Access
Through access to the interactive maps interface, users are allowed to retrieve information base on the eight application modules provided namely public facilities, industries and commerce, tourism, physical characteristics and built up areas, green and recreational areas, land use, housing as well as population and socio-economy. The map display and GIS operations provided such as Zoom In, Zoom Out, Pan, Hyper Link, Full Extension and Identify will enable users to access and retrieve the required information easily and interactively. Apart from that, several analyses results are also made accessible, for example, those associated with the Integrated Land Use Assessment (ILA) study to encourage users to participate in evaluating the model as well as final results for the purpose of improving the it. This is hoped to contribute to a better-informed society in a metropolitan region such as Klang Valley.
The web page allows user to view and use the information displayed for further processing. The GIS web page was developed with the aim to facilitate users, especially BKWPPLK’s client to acquire information in digital form. Nevertheless, the web page acts as a source of reference in making decision and evaluation for planning and development purposes where Klang Valley is concerned.
Data Sharing through the Stakeholder Application Module
To coordinate development in Klang Valley, the use of GIS for planning and monitoring extends beyond the development of a comprehensive database. The AGISwlk data needs to be integrated with the local authorities as well as agencies directly involved in planning and monitoring of the region. A web-based GIS application for stakeholders was developed to integrate the data set and to encourage data sharing between various agencies involved in shaping the urban environment in Klang Valley region.
As previously mentioned, the stakeholders application has the interest of promoting data sharing and collaborative planning between government agencies and planning authorities in Klang Valley through distributed data access. This application cater for two type of data to be shared, which are:
Meanwhile, the need for a two-way communication between AGISwlk and the stakeholders has led to the idea of distributed data access which not only support data exchange and sharing but also discussions, especially for the purpose of certain decision making. This method will enable stakeholders to complement each others need and hence ensure the validity and reliability of data. This will also encourage the implementation of various analyses using any kind of appropriate software as users are able to download each other’s data for the purpose. The results could then be made available on-line for discussion and feedbacks before the final decision is made. Apart from that, this application provides function such as Graphical buffer, mapnotes, Editnotes, save as project file and image capture to allow users to carry out analyses as well as share their views on-line by graphically adding to as well as editing or deleting of the displayed area being discussed.
The approach applied is similar to that of hybrid model which combines the characteristics of the server- and client-centric models (Kingston, 1998) except that the complexities of translating requests and results are taken over by the ‘middleware’ layer through the adopted three-tier client/server architecture. Stakeholders will still perform their own task of capturing, storing and maintaining data relevant to their organisational operations. Meanwhile, AGISwlk’s web-based stakeholder application which act as the ‘hub homepage’ will provide access to aggregated subset of transactional data, present a visual user interface and allow for cross-disciplinary analysis. This is achieved through agreement with data providers.
Figure 4: Network configuration for distributed data access
Basically, stakeholders need to have their own URL address to enable communication. Figure 4 shows the network configuration for distributed data access between stakeholders. Web Server A (AGISwlk) will provide the stakeholder application for user stakeholder access, in this case the Mineral and Geoscience Department (JMG) and City Hall of Kuala Lumpur (DBKL). Meanwhile, WebServer B and WebServer C which are the stakeholders’ servers will store their own data in the form of image or spatial data which are compiled in the form of AXL, mxd or JPG files. All the data to be shared will be kept in the map service generated in the web servers. Users will be allowed to access GIS data by choosing the map service provided by each map server. Username and password may be required for access of certain map service. Catalogue windows will be provided in the application to allow users to select the data to be retrieved. User stakeholders will be able to retrieve data and carry out analysis relevant to their decision-making requirement.. For example, JMG could access the AGISwlk Web Server that provides macro-level data or Web Server of DBKL (WebServer C) that provides micro-level data and display, retrieve or manipulate the data using the GIS functions provided through the stakeholder application on the AGISwlk WebServer such as overlay, buffer and so forth for decision-making purpose regarding issues concerning geohazard risk. At the moment, work is underway in establishing collaboration with all possible government stakeholders.
GIS Web for Monitoring the Implementation of Development Plans: The case of Malacca Structure Plan
At the state government level, the development plans are legal document that become the basis of development guidelines and control. Section III of the Town and Country Planning Act (Act 172) with reference to section 4, 5, and 6 stated the State Structure Plan (RSN) as a written statement emphasizing on the policies and general proposal of the State Authority regarding development and use of land for an area (JPBD, 2001). According to the RSN Manual, the preparation of RSN is crucial for the planning authority to initiate examination on the state development when required by the State Planning Committee or if changes in the sectoral policies occur, which will consequently affect the trend and pattern in the state development. In the case of Malacca, The state level GIS was developed to serve two main purposes. One is the planning purpose that includes the preparation of the key diagram for the State Structure Plan which involves a combination of analyses such as determination of area having potential for future development and area for conservation. The other is in monitoring the current development (Yaakup et al., 2003a).
Subsequently, the GIS developed was further extended to the development of web-based GIS application for the State Structure Plan of Malacca which aimed at disseminating information in the forms of spatial and aspatial data especially regarding policies and guidelines involved in formulation of development programmes for the state. Initially, the adopted concept was more toward display of information in the form of image and maps and allowing for easy and interactive access to maps and relevant policies, especially for the clients of Department of Town and Country Planning. These are realised through development of user-friendly interface for map display apart from manipulation and simple query of data. Ideally, the web application should provide opportunities for users to refer to information relevant to the structure plan through the GIS functions provided so as able to contribute to the evaluation process of planning and decision-making concerning development of the state.
The web was developed to include several modules that basically support the activities of structure plan formulation and review for the state, namely the main web page as well as module for sectoral selection, display of the general policies and display of the subject policies. The module for sectoral selection allows for users to choose from the five sectors provided including Physical, Sustainable, Social, Economic and Heritage. Each sector will be linked to the relevant policies as well as the stages of their formulation supported by relevant subject plans, diagrams and tables.
Rajah 3: Interface developed for monitoring the implementation of Malacca Structure Plan
The web GIS developed is expected to improve public participation and collaboration in the decision making process through data sharing with government agencies, the private sectors as well as the general public. It allows for objections and proposals to be forwarded to the Department of Town and Country Planning through the feedback column provided and hence helps improve the quality of planning apart from providing transparency to the current planning process.
GIS Web for Development and Building Control: The Case of City Hall of Kuala Lumpur
The Interactive Maps Application for the Planning and Building Control Department (JPKB), City Hall of Kuala Lumpur (DBKL) was developed within a broader system package known as the Development Control System for City Hall of Kuala Lumpur (SKP). This first such support system for local authority in Malaysia which emphasizes on the planning and building control procedures and workflows, integrates as many as seven sub systems including the Planning Authorisation, Building Control, Enforcement, Geospatial and Planning Information, Information Kiosk, Document Processing and Meeting Presentation sub systems.
The Interactive Maps Application is one of the modules developed under the Information Kiosk Sub System that serves to provide information regarding planning and development activities within DBKL’s planning zones. This sub system is built for internal users as well as the public to gather information through the Planning and Building Control Department’s web site. This kiosk provides detail information on Kuala Lumpur, the City Hall, the Planning and Building Control Department as well as development control and enforcement. The sub system also enables users to obtain various forms and support documents provided apart from allowing the City Hall to announce important issues and application results to the public as well as providing functions for access of spatial data through the internet (Yaakup et al., 2003b).
The interactive maps application offers GIS functional tools and query forms for users to retrieve information through searching operation base on parcel number, street names, building type or area (Figure 4). Brief information such as the ‘search id’ will be displayed together with the selected location. Detailed information regarding a selected area or building can be obtained by executing the identify or select box functions.
Figure 4: Interface for Interactive Maps Application
The interactive maps application allows users to refer and obtain spatial as well as aspatial information such as on land use and built up area, apart from tourist attractions and historical locations in Kuala Lumpur. The search operation which is developed using the ASP programming also aims at enabling the users, especially applicants to check their planning application status base on location/area and application file number. The feedback column provided in the kiosk will also allow users to forward their opinions or make correction wherever necessary.
By keeping the public well informed of the development status in Kuala Lumpur and receiving feedbacks from users, the web base GIS developed is seen to support JPKB and DBKL in upgrading the quality of planning and development control in the jurisdiction of Kuala Lumpur.
DISCUSSION
Several issues arise and need to be tackled in the implementation of a web base GIS such as the case studies discussed. Among critical ones include dissimilarity in spatial reference and data format, security of data and capabilities of existing internet facilities.
In establishing a platform for distributed data access for the purpose of collaborative planning, there is a need for a common framework for combining information from diverse stakeholders involved. The implementation of distributed data access would need for agreements to be made among stakeholders regarding the issues involved. Failure to address this problem will hinder the ability to perform the process of data overlay as well as use other GIS operations for the purpose of analyses. The traditional approach of conversion of one dataset to other’s model is still applicable but with several drawbacks such as loss of accuracy, precision or even meaning.
Data allowed for access on-line is normally exposed to high risk. In the context of open system and use of data, emphasis has to be given to security measures to avoid system breakdown or interruption, damage or illegal access by unauthorised parties which would inevitably influence the users’ confidence in retrieving and using the data. Base on experience involving the case studies, three measures are identified to be effective to certain extent in protecting the data and system which are the use of user passwords, firewall and map service security which apparently complement one another.
The use of login passwords would control access base on levels of users and affiliations. This is especially important in term of data maintenance and monitoring user activities regarding each of the data being access. Meanwhile, the firewall is used to control illegal access through the use of IP address and server port recognition. This will also help protect the data from damage or being modified without authorization. The use of map service security, on the other hand, emphasis on the use of the Arc IMS technology to limit user access to the MapService developed, through ‘Servlet Connector’ or ‘ActiveX Connector’. To access spatial data, user will need to provide the URL address, name of map service as well as user name and password. Only valid user will be allowed to choose the data layer required through the GIS web or GIS software.
Speed of data transfer is another important factor to ensure the system can be effectively used. Delay in the operation of retrieving data tends to be bothersome to user. User will generally prefer systems that are user-friendly. Among the factors which contribute to the failure of public participation through web-based GIS in Malaysia is due to internet technology which still does not support effective data transfer. Public is thus discourage in using the system and eventually revert to the conventional approach. As for collaborative planning among stakeholders via the Net, the parties involved should consider the overall strategy especially in providing the infrastructure needed.
In ensuring successful implementation of the application developed and it is fully utilised by all parties involved, the development should allow for transparency in concept and be able to generate cyber democracy between the entities involved through fulfilling their interest. The functions provided should be expanded to all possible effective communication environments such as forum, email or real-time communication (chat or message). Through these functions, the process of identifying and solving spatial problems or the task of identifying critical development elements can be carried out together. In fact, it assists the stakeholders in collecting useful information as well as measuring the exact requirement and importance of users.
It is envisaged that through the development, application and evaluation of these three case studies of different spatial scales, the on-line GIS systems can be possibly applied to all planning authorities so as to move toward better governance.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Internet base GIS is seen as a new approach that offers great opportunities for users to be involved in planning and project management in a more organised and efficient manner. The interfaces provided demonstrate the capacity to view, manipulate and distribute geographic data via WWW in an efficient, organised and user-friendly manner. Public can have access to these information and be more informed of the planning activities that are taking place while other agencies can assist in developing a better database which consequently enhance the decision making process.
It is expected to revolutionise public participation and consensus building in planning by allowing anyone to access and use web GIS for capturing and manipulating spatial information with interactive sources and high customisation. Users can interact with GIS data and maps on the Web without having to own GIS software programs. It is also expected to provide interactive mapping and spatial analysis capabilities for enhancing public participation and collaboration in decision-making processes.
References
Web-based GIS For Collaborative Planning And
Public Participation Toward Better Governance
Ahris Yaakup
GIS and Planning Unit
Department of Urban and Regional Planning
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Yazid Abu Bakar
GIS and Planning Unit
Department of Urban and Regional Planning
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Susilawati Sulaiman
GIS and Planning Unit
Department of Urban and Regional Planning
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Ahris Yaakup
GIS and Planning Unit
Department of Urban and Regional Planning
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Yazid Abu Bakar
GIS and Planning Unit
Department of Urban and Regional Planning
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Susilawati Sulaiman
GIS and Planning Unit
Department of Urban and Regional Planning
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Abstract
The planning and management process involves many stages of decision-making and expertise from various fields and hence necessitates for collaboration among the parties involved apart from public participation for improving information and to facilitate the adaptability of the planning system. This paper outlines current research and the potential of the Internet based GIS as a means of increasing collaborative planning and public participation in decision making. Case studies are provided to illustrate the potential and actual benefit of on-line systems engaging with regional monitoring, state structure plan implementation and development and building control.
INTRODUCTION
The planning and management process involves many stages of decision-making and expertise from various fields and hence necessitates for collaboration among the parties involved. In addition, public participation is essential as a means of improving information and to facilitate the adaptability of the planning system. In Malaysia, the preparation of the development plan called for participation as a value consensus mechanism, not only from the public at large but other agencies to allow data sharing and to ensure more informed decision. Yet factors such as communication and collaboration breakdown due to a lack of trust and inadequate institutional support for communication among stakeholders as well as lack of effective means for public participation do not allow for effective spatial planning. As such there need to be an effective approach and strategy to support consensus-building as well as public participation in the desire to provide better governance. However, GIS data which were made accessible on the Internet by web-based GIS technology, has offered an effective medium for public participation and collaborative planning.
The internet is currently considered an important media. Its ability in enabling users to interact across the network has provided opportunities for retrieval of hypermedia information in an easy and effective way. Through the World Wide Web (WWW) multimedia capabilities, users all over the world has turned this technology into an important media to access and acquire information as well as interact using diverse types of visual representations such as images, maps, diagrams and graphs which are as easy to implement as text supported by graphical interface, sound, video, animation and so forth.
Web-based GIS technology plays an effective role in the presentation and analysing of planning information. Users need not have specific training or software to be able to interact. Its ability in enabling easy and simplified access and without limitation in terms of time and location should be able to increase the number of GIS users and involvement in the planning and development activities. Web-based GIS is expected to cultivate a new working environment in the field of planning through involvement from various agencies and personnel in obtaining common benefits. The sharing of information would be able to facilitate and support the planning agendas and urban management in Malaysia.
NATURE OF PLANNING AND EVOLVING CONCERNS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Decision characterises every stage of the planning and management processes which are based on a generic problem solving process involving problem definition and description, various forms of analysis which might include simulation and modelling, prediction and prescription or design which often involves the evaluation of alternative solutions to the problem. The process takes place across many scales and is clearly `iterative' or `cyclic' in form as the process of implementation of the chosen plan or policy will involve the sequence once again. Processes may be nested within one another while the extent to which different professionals, managers and other decision-making interests are involved through the various stages, depends upon the nature of specific applications and their context (Batty and Densham, 1996).
The nature of planning calls for an effective approach to achieve the desired goals and objectives, evaluate alternative as well as control development programs that are in line with the current and future prospects. In the meantime, the evolving concept of planning has been accompanied by equally fundamental but largely independent changes in the prevailing views of proper information technology in public and private sector organizations (Table 1).
Information technology development during 1960’s pertaining the providing the information needed for a value-and politically neutral process of “rational” planning and can be viewed broadly as an evolving concern with data, in which the prevailing technology was batch processing of custom design, single-purpose, and transaction based information systems on mainframe computers. The emphasis changed in the 1970’s whereby the concern is more toward conversion of data into meaningful form known as information. In relation, data processing for operational needs shifted to Management Information Systems (MIS), Urban Information System (UIS), Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Land Information System (LIS). However, the change of approach from information to knowledge in the 1980’s and toward intelligence-based information technology in the 1990’s reflected to decision makers on desire for analytical modelling capabilities and Planning Support System (PSS) to facilitate collective design, social interaction, interpersonal communication and a community debate (Brail, 2001).
Although computers have been applied in urban planning almost since their inception, only recently with the development of graphics, distributed processing, and network communications has software emerged that can now be used routinely and effectively. At the basis of these developments are geographic information systems (GIS) but gradually, these are being adapted to the kind of decision and management functions that lie at the heart of the planning process (Batty and Densham, 1996).
GIS for Public Participation
The notion of Malaysian public involvement in planning can be traced to the Town Board Enactment of the Federated Malay States of 1927. It provides for the general town plan to be displayed to the public to make objections and propose recommendation on how to overcome the objections. Later the Town Board Enactment 1930 (which are still applicable in some parts of the country) provides similar arrangements for public involvement. In all these cases, the public was only allowed to participate after a draft plan has been completed.
The Town and Country Planning Act (TCP Act), 1976 which succeeded the Town Board Enactment was the only significant planning legislation which covers all local authorities in Peninsular Malaysia. The rationale of the TCP Act 1976 was basically to replace the Town Board Enactment which was considered extremely physical in approach and too rigid in accommodating changes in socio-economic needs for a country experiencing rapid development. The 1976 Act essentially provide for public participation in these stages:
- while preparing the structure plan policies
- objection to and representation of the structure plan
- objection to the local plan
Public participation in Malaysia has been quite successful in informing the public about the development plan of their respective area. However, more significant contribution from the public is desirable to improve the relationship with the authority, which would facilitate better development effort for the country (Shamsudin, 1994).
The idea of having public participation through GIS application was originated in mid-1990s by Onsrud, Schroeder and Lopez of the University of Maine whose workshop on the subject of how to improve access to GIS among non-governmental organisations and individuals, especially those who have been historically under-represented in public policy making, yielded the result that the phrase public participation GIS (PPGIS) has seen been used to describe a variety of approaches to come up with tools related to GIS and other spatial decision-making and accessible to all those with a stake in official decisions (Schroeder, 1997).
PPGIS has since been extended to cover various fields and branches to include user interface customisation, access to GIS network, use of GIS as user communication media, producing of spatial data through information sharing, public access to digital data, and other activities without the need for skills and costly development of information technology (NCGIA, 1996). Apparently, the web-based GIS technology has played an important role in encouraging public participation. The GIS approach to public participation is seen able to handle the problem base on integration of GIS analysis and open public communication through proposals and objection from the public perspective. The capability in simplifying access and management of data has led to the implementation of data sharing between government organisations and local groups involved.
Web-based GIS as means for Consensus Building Between Stakeholders
In planning, obtaining relevant information is crucial for the purpose of decision-making and good information would certainly lead to better decision. However, relevant information is usually unavailable due to factors such as lack of effectiveness in information sharing and communication between stakeholders. Nevertheless, this problem is believed to be overcome through the concept of consensus building which is further accelerated with support from information system technology.
Figure 1: Barriers to effective planning and strategies for addressing them (Baxmann, http://www.spatial.maine.edu/ucgis/testproc/baxmann/baxmann.html )
Consensus building is evolving as a key strategy in helping overcome communication barriers in planning. Defined as a voluntary effort involving informal, face-to-face interaction between stakeholder representatives (Susskind and Cruikshank, 1987), it is seen as an "all-gain" as opposed to conventional "win-lose" decision-making. Participants seek to satisfy their interests within the context of other stakeholders' interests through integrative bargaining.
The approach to public participation through web base GIS is meant to incorporate diverse stakeholder viewpoints (e.g., citizens, taxpayers, public interest groups, disenfranchised parties, government, private sector, etc.) by utilizing emerging information infrastructure and appropriate technologies suitable for multi-party communication and decision making. The process orientation of this approach would not strive toward general agreement among participants, but rather would afford a forum for effective expression of views which enhance fair, efficient and wise outcomes. Current approaches to addressing these situations include (Kingston, 1998):
- Collaborative planning processes
- Public dispute resolution
- Facility siting/design review
- Futures and scenario planning
- Public participation in government decision making
- Role of information in public participation process
In general, the above situations encourage user, especially the public to express their views on development planning scenario especially that involving local environment, to the local authorities or stakeholders concerned. On the other hand, collaborative interaction on planning among stakeholders will advocate a group decision-making environment.
The use of web-based GIS is seen as the best approach in overcoming the uncertainty, contradiction and disputes involved in the planning process. It provides huge potential for improving the planning system especially in terms of transparency and accessibility and consequently contributes to better governance.
DEVELOPMENT OF GIS WEB APPLICATION
There is currently a variety of software that could be used to develop a web-base GIS application. Among the common ones include ArcIMS, ArcExplorer, MapObjects, MapGuide, MapExtreme, GeoMedia Web, Spatial WebBroker and few others. Each of the software is slightly different in approach and varies in terms of the underlying architecture and programming language used. Here, example of the development process of GIS web application will be discussed in brief with reference to the use of ArcIMS software.
Base on the ArcIMS software approach, the ArcXML, Javascript and HTML programming language were used through integration of the author, designer and administration modules provided which made the development of application easier and more organized (ESRI, 2000a; 2000b).
The preparation of maps and services is the first stage involved in the Author module to enable the display of maps via internet. Each map layer is prepared base on the data and user requirement. Appropriate symbols and colour is assigned to ensure the result displayed fulfils the criteria and features required. Next, the map layers will be compiled and stored in a service to ease user access to the application server.
Meanwhile, the designer module facilitates the preparation of appropriate and specific interface through applying certain functions and operations involving combination of design for maps visualisation, functional and operational buttons, attributes display and user dialogues. This module provides simple and attractive framework design through generation of appropriate functions and customisations of existing windows.
The administration module, on the other hand, enables easy management and maintenance of the map service stored in the web server. This module helps ensure efficient access by users to the maps provided. This module also enables updating of service, configuration settings for data sharing as well as defining of image formats and duration of access by users. The flow of GIS web development involving the three modules is illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2: The flow of GIS web development
At large, the GIS web developed tends to adopt a one-direction relationship between user and the system whereby the display and operation ability provided through the integration of the three modules only involve communication between the user’s computer and web/application server. Interaction is allowed between request and delivery of existing data only while no subjective responses are allowed from this type of access.
In the public participation context, the web base GIS developed should allow for users to give feedbacks and support the decision making process. As such, the GIS web should be customised to take into consideration the suitable data requirement, spatial planning models, ‘GIS’ tools and effective user interaction forms as to enable the users to exercise the followings:
- explore the decision problem;
- experiment with choice alternatives;
- formulate one or more decision choices; and
- feedback and evaluate the system.
Through direct and easy access to the relevant information and learning about all aspects of a decision problem, the user should begin to modify existing ideas and generate new ones which can then be fed back into the system as and when appropriate. Meanwhile, through experimentation with choice alternatives, achievable solution alternatives can be identified and fed into the decision space, while unfeasible or conflict generating alternatives discarded. Formulation of decision choices should aim to maximise consensus and minimise conflict. On the other hand, feedback to users throughout the decision process is essential to inform how and why particular decision choice alternatives have been identified and also keeps clients aware of how they are formulating their decision choices while evaluation and feedback of the system by users is also essential to allow server administrators and designers to improve and clarify the systems (Kingston, 1998).
GIS WEB APPLICATIONS IN PLANNING AND MONITORING OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT – SOME EXAMPLES
In Malaysia, the growing interest of developing web base GIS in the government organisations as well as private sectors has been a positive sign in extending the use of GIS application to the public, apart from allowing for refer and acquiring of geographic information in digital form. The need to obtain views and feedbacks from the public is the main factor that motivates the development of web-based GIS pertaining to their relevant fields or activities. The examples being discussed are GIS web applications at three different planning and management levels that is the regional level, the state level and the local level. Discussion will reflect on the objectives of their development which are base on the organisational functions, targeted users, architecture in brief, and last but not least the functions provided to users. It has to be noted that all the projects discussed are still in the development phase and undergoing further enhancement in term of functions provided to user.
Web-base GIS for Regional Monitoring: The Case of AGISwlk
Application of GIS for Klang Valley Region (AGISwlk) was developed as a planning support system for decision makers in planning and monitoring of the Klang Valley region. The database for AGISwlk was designed and first developed to support eight application modules base on relevant sectors for development planning and monitoring of the region which are built up area, green and recreational area, traffic and transportation, squatter and low cost housing, environment, utilities and community services, industrial and commercial development as well as population and socio-economy. This required as many as ten elements of data including base maps, administrative boundary, physical characteristics, land development, population and socio-economy, environmental quality, traffic and urban transportation, green and recreational area, squatter and low cost housing, as well as public facilities and utilities (Yaakup et al., 1999). Subsequently, the application modules of AGISwlk were developed.
Meanwhile, web-based GIS for Klang Valley or also known as AGISwlk Web was initiated as an extension to the prior developed database and application modules of AGISwlk. While AGISwlk was meant as a planning support system for decision makers in planning and monitoring of the region, the Web-Based GIS is more towards inviting public participation apart from providing information in the form of maps and data for public access, and paving the path for data sharing with agencies having the same interest.
The Web-GIS applications developed for the case of Klang Valley adopted the three-tier client/server architecture comprising three main parts namely Clients, Middleware/Application Server and Data Storage (Yaakup et al., 2001). Two application modules were developed due to serve two different target groups base on the requirement and role of each one. The first module, which is the Public Interactive Maps Application aimed at providing information on Klang Valley apart from inviting public participation from the general public. Meanwhile, the second module also known as the Stakeholder Application was designed for the purpose of data sharing and collaborative planning between government agencies and planning authorities whereby the potential users are government officers. Figure 3 shows the interface for map display via the two applications.
Figure 3: Map display for the two different applications in AGISwlk Web
Using Web-based GIS as a new tool for exchanging and gathering of information brings numerous benefits. It will be a simple way for the public or local governments to provide or exchange spatial information on the Net. The integration of data through distributed data access is expected to minimise data redundancy as well as time and cost of database development (Yaakup and Sulaiman, 2003).
Interactive Maps for Public Access
Through access to the interactive maps interface, users are allowed to retrieve information base on the eight application modules provided namely public facilities, industries and commerce, tourism, physical characteristics and built up areas, green and recreational areas, land use, housing as well as population and socio-economy. The map display and GIS operations provided such as Zoom In, Zoom Out, Pan, Hyper Link, Full Extension and Identify will enable users to access and retrieve the required information easily and interactively. Apart from that, several analyses results are also made accessible, for example, those associated with the Integrated Land Use Assessment (ILA) study to encourage users to participate in evaluating the model as well as final results for the purpose of improving the it. This is hoped to contribute to a better-informed society in a metropolitan region such as Klang Valley.
The web page allows user to view and use the information displayed for further processing. The GIS web page was developed with the aim to facilitate users, especially BKWPPLK’s client to acquire information in digital form. Nevertheless, the web page acts as a source of reference in making decision and evaluation for planning and development purposes where Klang Valley is concerned.
Data Sharing through the Stakeholder Application Module
To coordinate development in Klang Valley, the use of GIS for planning and monitoring extends beyond the development of a comprehensive database. The AGISwlk data needs to be integrated with the local authorities as well as agencies directly involved in planning and monitoring of the region. A web-based GIS application for stakeholders was developed to integrate the data set and to encourage data sharing between various agencies involved in shaping the urban environment in Klang Valley region.
As previously mentioned, the stakeholders application has the interest of promoting data sharing and collaborative planning between government agencies and planning authorities in Klang Valley through distributed data access. This application cater for two type of data to be shared, which are:
- AGISwlk’s data
- Stakeholder’s data
Meanwhile, the need for a two-way communication between AGISwlk and the stakeholders has led to the idea of distributed data access which not only support data exchange and sharing but also discussions, especially for the purpose of certain decision making. This method will enable stakeholders to complement each others need and hence ensure the validity and reliability of data. This will also encourage the implementation of various analyses using any kind of appropriate software as users are able to download each other’s data for the purpose. The results could then be made available on-line for discussion and feedbacks before the final decision is made. Apart from that, this application provides function such as Graphical buffer, mapnotes, Editnotes, save as project file and image capture to allow users to carry out analyses as well as share their views on-line by graphically adding to as well as editing or deleting of the displayed area being discussed.
The approach applied is similar to that of hybrid model which combines the characteristics of the server- and client-centric models (Kingston, 1998) except that the complexities of translating requests and results are taken over by the ‘middleware’ layer through the adopted three-tier client/server architecture. Stakeholders will still perform their own task of capturing, storing and maintaining data relevant to their organisational operations. Meanwhile, AGISwlk’s web-based stakeholder application which act as the ‘hub homepage’ will provide access to aggregated subset of transactional data, present a visual user interface and allow for cross-disciplinary analysis. This is achieved through agreement with data providers.
Figure 4: Network configuration for distributed data access
Basically, stakeholders need to have their own URL address to enable communication. Figure 4 shows the network configuration for distributed data access between stakeholders. Web Server A (AGISwlk) will provide the stakeholder application for user stakeholder access, in this case the Mineral and Geoscience Department (JMG) and City Hall of Kuala Lumpur (DBKL). Meanwhile, WebServer B and WebServer C which are the stakeholders’ servers will store their own data in the form of image or spatial data which are compiled in the form of AXL, mxd or JPG files. All the data to be shared will be kept in the map service generated in the web servers. Users will be allowed to access GIS data by choosing the map service provided by each map server. Username and password may be required for access of certain map service. Catalogue windows will be provided in the application to allow users to select the data to be retrieved. User stakeholders will be able to retrieve data and carry out analysis relevant to their decision-making requirement.. For example, JMG could access the AGISwlk Web Server that provides macro-level data or Web Server of DBKL (WebServer C) that provides micro-level data and display, retrieve or manipulate the data using the GIS functions provided through the stakeholder application on the AGISwlk WebServer such as overlay, buffer and so forth for decision-making purpose regarding issues concerning geohazard risk. At the moment, work is underway in establishing collaboration with all possible government stakeholders.
GIS Web for Monitoring the Implementation of Development Plans: The case of Malacca Structure Plan
At the state government level, the development plans are legal document that become the basis of development guidelines and control. Section III of the Town and Country Planning Act (Act 172) with reference to section 4, 5, and 6 stated the State Structure Plan (RSN) as a written statement emphasizing on the policies and general proposal of the State Authority regarding development and use of land for an area (JPBD, 2001). According to the RSN Manual, the preparation of RSN is crucial for the planning authority to initiate examination on the state development when required by the State Planning Committee or if changes in the sectoral policies occur, which will consequently affect the trend and pattern in the state development. In the case of Malacca, The state level GIS was developed to serve two main purposes. One is the planning purpose that includes the preparation of the key diagram for the State Structure Plan which involves a combination of analyses such as determination of area having potential for future development and area for conservation. The other is in monitoring the current development (Yaakup et al., 2003a).
Subsequently, the GIS developed was further extended to the development of web-based GIS application for the State Structure Plan of Malacca which aimed at disseminating information in the forms of spatial and aspatial data especially regarding policies and guidelines involved in formulation of development programmes for the state. Initially, the adopted concept was more toward display of information in the form of image and maps and allowing for easy and interactive access to maps and relevant policies, especially for the clients of Department of Town and Country Planning. These are realised through development of user-friendly interface for map display apart from manipulation and simple query of data. Ideally, the web application should provide opportunities for users to refer to information relevant to the structure plan through the GIS functions provided so as able to contribute to the evaluation process of planning and decision-making concerning development of the state.
The web was developed to include several modules that basically support the activities of structure plan formulation and review for the state, namely the main web page as well as module for sectoral selection, display of the general policies and display of the subject policies. The module for sectoral selection allows for users to choose from the five sectors provided including Physical, Sustainable, Social, Economic and Heritage. Each sector will be linked to the relevant policies as well as the stages of their formulation supported by relevant subject plans, diagrams and tables.
Rajah 3: Interface developed for monitoring the implementation of Malacca Structure Plan
The web GIS developed is expected to improve public participation and collaboration in the decision making process through data sharing with government agencies, the private sectors as well as the general public. It allows for objections and proposals to be forwarded to the Department of Town and Country Planning through the feedback column provided and hence helps improve the quality of planning apart from providing transparency to the current planning process.
GIS Web for Development and Building Control: The Case of City Hall of Kuala Lumpur
The Interactive Maps Application for the Planning and Building Control Department (JPKB), City Hall of Kuala Lumpur (DBKL) was developed within a broader system package known as the Development Control System for City Hall of Kuala Lumpur (SKP). This first such support system for local authority in Malaysia which emphasizes on the planning and building control procedures and workflows, integrates as many as seven sub systems including the Planning Authorisation, Building Control, Enforcement, Geospatial and Planning Information, Information Kiosk, Document Processing and Meeting Presentation sub systems.
The Interactive Maps Application is one of the modules developed under the Information Kiosk Sub System that serves to provide information regarding planning and development activities within DBKL’s planning zones. This sub system is built for internal users as well as the public to gather information through the Planning and Building Control Department’s web site. This kiosk provides detail information on Kuala Lumpur, the City Hall, the Planning and Building Control Department as well as development control and enforcement. The sub system also enables users to obtain various forms and support documents provided apart from allowing the City Hall to announce important issues and application results to the public as well as providing functions for access of spatial data through the internet (Yaakup et al., 2003b).
The interactive maps application offers GIS functional tools and query forms for users to retrieve information through searching operation base on parcel number, street names, building type or area (Figure 4). Brief information such as the ‘search id’ will be displayed together with the selected location. Detailed information regarding a selected area or building can be obtained by executing the identify or select box functions.
Figure 4: Interface for Interactive Maps Application
The interactive maps application allows users to refer and obtain spatial as well as aspatial information such as on land use and built up area, apart from tourist attractions and historical locations in Kuala Lumpur. The search operation which is developed using the ASP programming also aims at enabling the users, especially applicants to check their planning application status base on location/area and application file number. The feedback column provided in the kiosk will also allow users to forward their opinions or make correction wherever necessary.
By keeping the public well informed of the development status in Kuala Lumpur and receiving feedbacks from users, the web base GIS developed is seen to support JPKB and DBKL in upgrading the quality of planning and development control in the jurisdiction of Kuala Lumpur.
DISCUSSION
Several issues arise and need to be tackled in the implementation of a web base GIS such as the case studies discussed. Among critical ones include dissimilarity in spatial reference and data format, security of data and capabilities of existing internet facilities.
In establishing a platform for distributed data access for the purpose of collaborative planning, there is a need for a common framework for combining information from diverse stakeholders involved. The implementation of distributed data access would need for agreements to be made among stakeholders regarding the issues involved. Failure to address this problem will hinder the ability to perform the process of data overlay as well as use other GIS operations for the purpose of analyses. The traditional approach of conversion of one dataset to other’s model is still applicable but with several drawbacks such as loss of accuracy, precision or even meaning.
Data allowed for access on-line is normally exposed to high risk. In the context of open system and use of data, emphasis has to be given to security measures to avoid system breakdown or interruption, damage or illegal access by unauthorised parties which would inevitably influence the users’ confidence in retrieving and using the data. Base on experience involving the case studies, three measures are identified to be effective to certain extent in protecting the data and system which are the use of user passwords, firewall and map service security which apparently complement one another.
The use of login passwords would control access base on levels of users and affiliations. This is especially important in term of data maintenance and monitoring user activities regarding each of the data being access. Meanwhile, the firewall is used to control illegal access through the use of IP address and server port recognition. This will also help protect the data from damage or being modified without authorization. The use of map service security, on the other hand, emphasis on the use of the Arc IMS technology to limit user access to the MapService developed, through ‘Servlet Connector’ or ‘ActiveX Connector’. To access spatial data, user will need to provide the URL address, name of map service as well as user name and password. Only valid user will be allowed to choose the data layer required through the GIS web or GIS software.
Speed of data transfer is another important factor to ensure the system can be effectively used. Delay in the operation of retrieving data tends to be bothersome to user. User will generally prefer systems that are user-friendly. Among the factors which contribute to the failure of public participation through web-based GIS in Malaysia is due to internet technology which still does not support effective data transfer. Public is thus discourage in using the system and eventually revert to the conventional approach. As for collaborative planning among stakeholders via the Net, the parties involved should consider the overall strategy especially in providing the infrastructure needed.
In ensuring successful implementation of the application developed and it is fully utilised by all parties involved, the development should allow for transparency in concept and be able to generate cyber democracy between the entities involved through fulfilling their interest. The functions provided should be expanded to all possible effective communication environments such as forum, email or real-time communication (chat or message). Through these functions, the process of identifying and solving spatial problems or the task of identifying critical development elements can be carried out together. In fact, it assists the stakeholders in collecting useful information as well as measuring the exact requirement and importance of users.
It is envisaged that through the development, application and evaluation of these three case studies of different spatial scales, the on-line GIS systems can be possibly applied to all planning authorities so as to move toward better governance.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Internet base GIS is seen as a new approach that offers great opportunities for users to be involved in planning and project management in a more organised and efficient manner. The interfaces provided demonstrate the capacity to view, manipulate and distribute geographic data via WWW in an efficient, organised and user-friendly manner. Public can have access to these information and be more informed of the planning activities that are taking place while other agencies can assist in developing a better database which consequently enhance the decision making process.
It is expected to revolutionise public participation and consensus building in planning by allowing anyone to access and use web GIS for capturing and manipulating spatial information with interactive sources and high customisation. Users can interact with GIS data and maps on the Web without having to own GIS software programs. It is also expected to provide interactive mapping and spatial analysis capabilities for enhancing public participation and collaboration in decision-making processes.
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