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Abstract
The objectives of this paper are to (1) describe the current status of factors that pave the way for increased use of GIS by cities, (2) report progress that has been made in the area of urban transportation planning and management, and (3) present implications for cities of developing countries. The paper consists of six parts. Part one introduces the factors that affect the adoption of GIS in urban transportation and management. Part two describes the requirement for knowledge of GIS. Technological developments are covered in part three. Observations on the cost of hardware, software and operations are presented in part four. Part five deals with organizational factors. Finally, in part six, conclusions are presented, including implications for cities of developing countries.
Introduction
Over the years, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have been defined by many authors. For example, according to a recently developed website of the U.S. Federal Highway Administration (2004), a GIS " is a collection of computer software, hardware, data, and personnel used to store, manipulate, analyze, and present geographically referenced information ." A similar definition of GIS was provided a decade ago by Blin et al. (1993). They defined GIS as "a system of computer hardware, software, and procedures designed to support the compiling, storing, retrieving, analyzing, and display of spatially referenced data for addressing planning and management problems. In addition to these technical components, a complete GIS must also include a focus on people, organizations, and standards".
The components of a GIS system intended for application in urban transportation planning and management, commonly referred to as GIS-T, include: technology (hardware, software), data capture & integration, users and their requirements, and finally institutions (Figure 1).
Figure 1: The components of a GIS system
In order to achieve the full potential of GIS for solving complex planning and management problems, factors that affect the adoption and effective use of GIS in urban transportation have to be favourable. The concluding resolutions of the 1995 United Nations-sponsored International Seminar on Geographic Information Systems, City Sustainability and Environment, held in Cairo (Egypt), emphasized the study of factors that would pave the way for increased use of GIS by cities. The factors that affect the adoption of GIS in urban transportation planning and management include (Khan 1995, United Nations 1995):
Figure 2: Factors Affecting the Use of GIS
Knowledge of GIS
The effective use of GIS technology requires the services of well-educated/trained people who are knowledgeable in spatial analysis and skilled in using GIS software. Four interrelated factors, if pursued, can yield satisfactory results:
Technological Development
Although the use of computers in mapping and spatial analysis was initiated over 40 years ago, there has been much progress over the years both in technology, and diversity of applications.
Technology and associated software have been developed so as to handle various forms of geographic data, such as transportation-related attribute data, raster data, line data, and area data. Attribute data are used to describe a spatial entity using both numeric data and text descriptions (e.g., land use characteristics or trip generation rates for a traffic analysis zone, etc.). Frequently, such data are stored in a tabular format (Blinn et al, 1993). Raster data include identifying features for various cells (e.g., river, warehouse, major shopping centre, etc.). Line data represent the shape of a linear geographic feature (e.g., roads). Area data represent polygons that enclose a homogenous unit (e.g., lakes, traffic analysis zones, etc.).
Equipment is needed for a range of activities -- from data collection to data analysis. The main requirement is a workstation. However, ancillary equipment may also be necessary. A digitizer is required for converting hard copy data to digital format. A GPS data logger may be required to collect field data. The use of hand-held field technology is also becoming popular. The advent of web-enabled GIS has resulted in web servers being added to the list of GIS requirements (GIS Lounge 2004).
Software for GIS applications is available from numerous vendors. Such software is generally capable of multiple tasks. For specialized tasks, extensions can be acquired or developed in house (GIS Lounge 2004).
As alluded to above, two primary types of data are used in GIS applications. These are geo databases (vector & raster types) and attribute data (GIS Lounge 2004).
The design of the technology enables the storage of the spatial features in a coordinate system that is referenced to Earth. Attribute (or descriptive) data are then associated with the spatial features. The spatial data and associated attribute information are layered on top of one another for viewing and analysis. The technology makes it possible to efficiently and holistically view multiple items of interest within a particular geographic area (FHWA 2004).
Data capture/entry involves manual digitizing and scanning, requiring the use of photogrammetric stations, coordinate geometry, global positioning system (GPS) receivers, digital cameras, satellite sensors, radar sensors, and thermal infra-red imaging devices. The integration of disparate data is carried out in the form of direct conversion of data from one system to another, and translation of data via standardized neutral exchange file formats. The spatial management (i.e., editing, topology building, edge matching, aggregation, and generalization) is carried out by customized software while attribute data might be managed by a database management system.
Advances in data capture technologies are responsible for reducing costs. In the past, high cost has been an impediment to the application of GIS in the transportation field. A variety of spatial referencing systems are used by transportation agencies for collecting data. Improved methods for the integration of data into a common referencing system for use in GIS-T are necessary for display, and for report preparation (TAC 1995).
User interfaces are driven by command languages, menus, and windows. Outputs include maps and data in variety of formats. The evolution of automated mapping has been supported by surveying, mapping, and remote sensing technologies, as well as advances in computer hardware and software. Progress in the development of GIS continues to be supported by such technologies.
Technology platforms are another area where innovations have helped improve GIS-T applications. These innovations include workstation technology, distributed processing and distributed database management. Further developments in this area will enable the integration of GIS into an overall agency-wide technology strategy.
As a database management system, a GIS-T is effective in capturing and analyzing data for a variety of planning and management applications. Such applications usually require that information on transportation analysis zones, demand for passenger and freight movement, passenger and freight vehicle flows, transportation networks, routes, schedules, and transportation system performance be stored, displayed, and analyzed at various spatial scales.
The transportation data structures that can be supported by a GIS-T include nodes, links, networks, paths, and origin-destination matrices. Query analyses allow information to be readily obtained and summarized, such as information on accident locations or various map features. Moreover, through dynamic segmentation, which is a method of partitioning lines or areas in a GIS database, selected attributes can be displayed (e.g., streets segmented by traffic volume and road condition) (Caliper Corp. 2004, 1996).
Several GIS technology and service related developments are taking shape in North America (Fletcher 2000, Peak 2000). These are noted below.
Geospatial information technologies are being used as new approaches for data acquisition. They are also being used as advanced tools for transportation planning and operations. For example, Thirumalai (2003) described how to expand ITS technology services through integration with commercial remote sensing and spatial information technologies. The implication is that commercial remote sensing and spatial information technologies can be used as imagery-based tools and systems for the transportation services market.
Bargiela and Berry (1999) describe a GIS-based interface for advanced traffic control. Such a system can be used for many purposes, including interrogation about real-time traffic flows in the network. Web-based systems for displaying real-time traffic flow conditions have also become available (Globis Data 2004).
Clearly, technological change has been rapid and is expected to continue at this pace. In combination with other factors, improvements in technology are likely to lead to increased use of GIS in urban transportation planning and management.
Figure 3: Examples of Recent Technological Developments
Advances in software development can be appreciated from the following example. By combining EMME/2 (a transportation planning software), TransCAD (a GIS software) and an emissions model developed by Armstrong (2000), it became possible to estimate emissions. Figure 4 shows VOC emissions for Ottawa, Canada. The AIDAIR-GENEVA Project (2004) is another example of the link between EMME/2, GIS and air pollution modules.
Another notable new development is the combination of GIS, ITS and web technology. An example application, namely a public transit information system, is briefly described here. Details are reported by Taylor and Khan (2003). This system enables the identification of an optimal route and provides the corresponding travel time while accounting for the uncertainty in schedule adherence. For the development of the system, data from the Ottawa-Carleton Regional Transit Commission (OC Transpo) and the City of Ottawa were used to develop the transit information system.
The transit information system answers four major questions:
Figure 4: VOC Emissions, Ottawa (Canada), 2021 Demand Assigned to 1995 Network (All Vehicles) (Armstrong 2000)
Figure 5: Transit Information System Methodology (Taylor and Khan 2003)
Figure 6: Report Box Results (Taylor and Khan 2002)
Figure 7: Results Image (Taylor and Khan 2003)
Cost of GIS
In the past, high cost has been identified as an impediment to the application of GIS in the transportation field. Favourable costs of hardware, software, and operations (i.e., data collection, maintenance, exchange, and dissemination) would enhance the likelihood of the use of GIS by transportation departments. The cost of hardware and software has been declining over time – a trend that is expected to continue. Advances in information technologies in general and data capture technologies in particular are responsible for reducing costs.
Table 1 presents three examples of the cost composition of GIS in a transportation department. The first example is that of the Arkansas Geographic Information Office (2004). In this case, the total direct cost amounts to $65,800. The other two examples are anonymous cases reported by the European Commission (2004).
The costs of a GIS are divided into the following components: hardware (GIS work-station, CD-ROM writer, plotter, scanners), software (base software, base GIS and additional GIS modules), maintenance, services (including on site consultation), training, and data (if obtained externally).
Table 1: Cost Structure of GIS
It is important to recognize that the price of GIS hardware and software is not the most significant cost factor. Hardware costs are expected to decline further and performance is likely to improve.
Human resource costs, training and on-site consultancy services exceed the technology costs. The largest cost component involves operational costs associated with salaries. GIS personnel engage in data -related activities and running the GIS software. Such costs typically exceed hardware and software acquisition costs, and represent a long-term, ongoing investment to transportation agencies. With improved educational and training opportunities in the future, the cost of special training and on-site consultancies may decrease.
Organizational Factors
Part five deals with organizational factors. It is noted that the introduction of GIS at the management level has facilitated the promotion of GIS throughout the entire organization. There is an appreciation in city governments that GIS can contribute to better decision making in achieving organizational goals. Another observation is that cooperation and data sharing among organizations are necessary for the successful implementation of GIS. The effectiveness of GIS can also be enhanced if it is integrated into the daily business of an organization.
Favourable organizational restructuring is necessary for removing impediments to GIS adoption by transportation agencies. Given the multi-interests and the potential of GIS to integrate information from all parts of a municipal government, it is natural to coordinate efforts so as to obtain the best use of this innovation.
Regional cooperation and data sharing is also important. It is beneficial to maintain a centralized regional GIS database, which can help integrate information about all related government agencies. Such integration is useful for land use and transportation planning as well as for sharing data collection and management costs (Local Government Commission 2004).
Conclusions
The foregoing information and discussion suggest the following conclusions.
Research sponsored by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) has contributed to the information contained in this paper. Views expressed are those of the authors.
References
Factors Affecting the Use of GIS in Urban Transportation Planning and Management
Ata M. Khan
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Carleton University
Canada
Sarah J. Taylor
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Carleton University
Canada
Jennifer M. Armstrong
Morrison Hershfield Limited
Canada
Ata M. Khan
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Carleton University
Canada
Sarah J. Taylor
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Carleton University
Canada
Jennifer M. Armstrong
Morrison Hershfield Limited
Canada
Abstract
The objectives of this paper are to (1) describe the current status of factors that pave the way for increased use of GIS by cities, (2) report progress that has been made in the area of urban transportation planning and management, and (3) present implications for cities of developing countries. The paper consists of six parts. Part one introduces the factors that affect the adoption of GIS in urban transportation and management. Part two describes the requirement for knowledge of GIS. Technological developments are covered in part three. Observations on the cost of hardware, software and operations are presented in part four. Part five deals with organizational factors. Finally, in part six, conclusions are presented, including implications for cities of developing countries.
Introduction
Over the years, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have been defined by many authors. For example, according to a recently developed website of the U.S. Federal Highway Administration (2004), a GIS " is a collection of computer software, hardware, data, and personnel used to store, manipulate, analyze, and present geographically referenced information ." A similar definition of GIS was provided a decade ago by Blin et al. (1993). They defined GIS as "a system of computer hardware, software, and procedures designed to support the compiling, storing, retrieving, analyzing, and display of spatially referenced data for addressing planning and management problems. In addition to these technical components, a complete GIS must also include a focus on people, organizations, and standards".
The components of a GIS system intended for application in urban transportation planning and management, commonly referred to as GIS-T, include: technology (hardware, software), data capture & integration, users and their requirements, and finally institutions (Figure 1).
Figure 1: The components of a GIS system
In order to achieve the full potential of GIS for solving complex planning and management problems, factors that affect the adoption and effective use of GIS in urban transportation have to be favourable. The concluding resolutions of the 1995 United Nations-sponsored International Seminar on Geographic Information Systems, City Sustainability and Environment, held in Cairo (Egypt), emphasized the study of factors that would pave the way for increased use of GIS by cities. The factors that affect the adoption of GIS in urban transportation planning and management include (Khan 1995, United Nations 1995):
- the knowledge base of City employees and consultants regarding the capabilities of GIS,
- technological advances encompassing both hardware and software,
- the cost of hardware, software and operations, and
- organizational factors.
Figure 2: Factors Affecting the Use of GIS
Knowledge of GIS
The effective use of GIS technology requires the services of well-educated/trained people who are knowledgeable in spatial analysis and skilled in using GIS software. Four interrelated factors, if pursued, can yield satisfactory results:
- Formal education
- Professional training
- Career path
- Networking with other GIS professionals
Technological Development
Although the use of computers in mapping and spatial analysis was initiated over 40 years ago, there has been much progress over the years both in technology, and diversity of applications.
Technology and associated software have been developed so as to handle various forms of geographic data, such as transportation-related attribute data, raster data, line data, and area data. Attribute data are used to describe a spatial entity using both numeric data and text descriptions (e.g., land use characteristics or trip generation rates for a traffic analysis zone, etc.). Frequently, such data are stored in a tabular format (Blinn et al, 1993). Raster data include identifying features for various cells (e.g., river, warehouse, major shopping centre, etc.). Line data represent the shape of a linear geographic feature (e.g., roads). Area data represent polygons that enclose a homogenous unit (e.g., lakes, traffic analysis zones, etc.).
Equipment is needed for a range of activities -- from data collection to data analysis. The main requirement is a workstation. However, ancillary equipment may also be necessary. A digitizer is required for converting hard copy data to digital format. A GPS data logger may be required to collect field data. The use of hand-held field technology is also becoming popular. The advent of web-enabled GIS has resulted in web servers being added to the list of GIS requirements (GIS Lounge 2004).
Software for GIS applications is available from numerous vendors. Such software is generally capable of multiple tasks. For specialized tasks, extensions can be acquired or developed in house (GIS Lounge 2004).
As alluded to above, two primary types of data are used in GIS applications. These are geo databases (vector & raster types) and attribute data (GIS Lounge 2004).
The design of the technology enables the storage of the spatial features in a coordinate system that is referenced to Earth. Attribute (or descriptive) data are then associated with the spatial features. The spatial data and associated attribute information are layered on top of one another for viewing and analysis. The technology makes it possible to efficiently and holistically view multiple items of interest within a particular geographic area (FHWA 2004).
Data capture/entry involves manual digitizing and scanning, requiring the use of photogrammetric stations, coordinate geometry, global positioning system (GPS) receivers, digital cameras, satellite sensors, radar sensors, and thermal infra-red imaging devices. The integration of disparate data is carried out in the form of direct conversion of data from one system to another, and translation of data via standardized neutral exchange file formats. The spatial management (i.e., editing, topology building, edge matching, aggregation, and generalization) is carried out by customized software while attribute data might be managed by a database management system.
Advances in data capture technologies are responsible for reducing costs. In the past, high cost has been an impediment to the application of GIS in the transportation field. A variety of spatial referencing systems are used by transportation agencies for collecting data. Improved methods for the integration of data into a common referencing system for use in GIS-T are necessary for display, and for report preparation (TAC 1995).
User interfaces are driven by command languages, menus, and windows. Outputs include maps and data in variety of formats. The evolution of automated mapping has been supported by surveying, mapping, and remote sensing technologies, as well as advances in computer hardware and software. Progress in the development of GIS continues to be supported by such technologies.
Technology platforms are another area where innovations have helped improve GIS-T applications. These innovations include workstation technology, distributed processing and distributed database management. Further developments in this area will enable the integration of GIS into an overall agency-wide technology strategy.
As a database management system, a GIS-T is effective in capturing and analyzing data for a variety of planning and management applications. Such applications usually require that information on transportation analysis zones, demand for passenger and freight movement, passenger and freight vehicle flows, transportation networks, routes, schedules, and transportation system performance be stored, displayed, and analyzed at various spatial scales.
The transportation data structures that can be supported by a GIS-T include nodes, links, networks, paths, and origin-destination matrices. Query analyses allow information to be readily obtained and summarized, such as information on accident locations or various map features. Moreover, through dynamic segmentation, which is a method of partitioning lines or areas in a GIS database, selected attributes can be displayed (e.g., streets segmented by traffic volume and road condition) (Caliper Corp. 2004, 1996).
Several GIS technology and service related developments are taking shape in North America (Fletcher 2000, Peak 2000). These are noted below.
- General information technology and market forces are changing rapidly. For example, the internet is producing an entirely new computing model,
- Owing to general transportation administration trends, there is a tendency towards outsourcing, privatizing, and decentralizing activities. This is resulting in an increased need for specialized consulting services.
- GIS-T markets, products, and technologies are changing. Examples of such changes include the development of mobile terminals, map-based yellow pages, trip planning and travel direction applets, vehicle tracking and routing applications, and other real-time products, services, and applications.
- GIS-T applications and services are becoming diverse (e.g. shift from infrastructure development to asset preservation and transportation operations).
- There is an increasing demand for spatial data, information, and knowledge (i.e. global data on demand, interoperable systems, location reference schemes, high resolution data).
- Integration of systems is on the rise (e.g., GIS, web technology, and intelligent transportation systems (ITS)).
Geospatial information technologies are being used as new approaches for data acquisition. They are also being used as advanced tools for transportation planning and operations. For example, Thirumalai (2003) described how to expand ITS technology services through integration with commercial remote sensing and spatial information technologies. The implication is that commercial remote sensing and spatial information technologies can be used as imagery-based tools and systems for the transportation services market.
Bargiela and Berry (1999) describe a GIS-based interface for advanced traffic control. Such a system can be used for many purposes, including interrogation about real-time traffic flows in the network. Web-based systems for displaying real-time traffic flow conditions have also become available (Globis Data 2004).
Clearly, technological change has been rapid and is expected to continue at this pace. In combination with other factors, improvements in technology are likely to lead to increased use of GIS in urban transportation planning and management.
Figure 3: Examples of Recent Technological Developments
Advances in software development can be appreciated from the following example. By combining EMME/2 (a transportation planning software), TransCAD (a GIS software) and an emissions model developed by Armstrong (2000), it became possible to estimate emissions. Figure 4 shows VOC emissions for Ottawa, Canada. The AIDAIR-GENEVA Project (2004) is another example of the link between EMME/2, GIS and air pollution modules.
Another notable new development is the combination of GIS, ITS and web technology. An example application, namely a public transit information system, is briefly described here. Details are reported by Taylor and Khan (2003). This system enables the identification of an optimal route and provides the corresponding travel time while accounting for the uncertainty in schedule adherence. For the development of the system, data from the Ottawa-Carleton Regional Transit Commission (OC Transpo) and the City of Ottawa were used to develop the transit information system.
The transit information system answers four major questions:
- Where is the nearest bus stop? (Location)
- When does the next bus leave, or, for travel at a certain time, which is the most appropriate departure? (Scheduling)
- How do I get from where I am to where I want to go? (Route Optimization)
- When will I arrive at my destination? (Travel Time)
Figure 4: VOC Emissions, Ottawa (Canada), 2021 Demand Assigned to 1995 Network (All Vehicles) (Armstrong 2000)
Figure 5: Transit Information System Methodology (Taylor and Khan 2003)
Figure 6: Report Box Results (Taylor and Khan 2002)
Figure 7: Results Image (Taylor and Khan 2003)
Cost of GIS
In the past, high cost has been identified as an impediment to the application of GIS in the transportation field. Favourable costs of hardware, software, and operations (i.e., data collection, maintenance, exchange, and dissemination) would enhance the likelihood of the use of GIS by transportation departments. The cost of hardware and software has been declining over time – a trend that is expected to continue. Advances in information technologies in general and data capture technologies in particular are responsible for reducing costs.
Table 1 presents three examples of the cost composition of GIS in a transportation department. The first example is that of the Arkansas Geographic Information Office (2004). In this case, the total direct cost amounts to $65,800. The other two examples are anonymous cases reported by the European Commission (2004).
The costs of a GIS are divided into the following components: hardware (GIS work-station, CD-ROM writer, plotter, scanners), software (base software, base GIS and additional GIS modules), maintenance, services (including on site consultation), training, and data (if obtained externally).
Table 1: Cost Structure of GIS
It is important to recognize that the price of GIS hardware and software is not the most significant cost factor. Hardware costs are expected to decline further and performance is likely to improve.
Human resource costs, training and on-site consultancy services exceed the technology costs. The largest cost component involves operational costs associated with salaries. GIS personnel engage in data -related activities and running the GIS software. Such costs typically exceed hardware and software acquisition costs, and represent a long-term, ongoing investment to transportation agencies. With improved educational and training opportunities in the future, the cost of special training and on-site consultancies may decrease.
Organizational Factors
Part five deals with organizational factors. It is noted that the introduction of GIS at the management level has facilitated the promotion of GIS throughout the entire organization. There is an appreciation in city governments that GIS can contribute to better decision making in achieving organizational goals. Another observation is that cooperation and data sharing among organizations are necessary for the successful implementation of GIS. The effectiveness of GIS can also be enhanced if it is integrated into the daily business of an organization.
Favourable organizational restructuring is necessary for removing impediments to GIS adoption by transportation agencies. Given the multi-interests and the potential of GIS to integrate information from all parts of a municipal government, it is natural to coordinate efforts so as to obtain the best use of this innovation.
Regional cooperation and data sharing is also important. It is beneficial to maintain a centralized regional GIS database, which can help integrate information about all related government agencies. Such integration is useful for land use and transportation planning as well as for sharing data collection and management costs (Local Government Commission 2004).
Conclusions
The foregoing information and discussion suggest the following conclusions.
- In assessing the factors that affect the adoption of GIS in urban transportation planning and management, it can be concluded that:
- Since the knowledge base of City employees and consultants regarding the capabilities of GIS is expected to improve in the future, the prospects for an increased role of GIS in urban transportation planning and management are bright.
- Highly significant technological advances encompassing both hardware and software have taken place. These are expected to continue in the future.
- The cost of GIS hardware, software and operations are very reasonable. In relative terms, hardware and software costs are not the dominant cost factors.
- Organizational factors continue to be important to the successful adoption of GIS in urban transportation.
- The implications for cities of developing countries are as follows:
- Education and training opportunities should be enhanced.
- Since technological developments are taking place at a rapid rate, a through knowledge of these developments should guide the selection of hardware and software.
- Cost sharing arrangements can be pursued among various municipal departments.
- Any organizational impediments to the successful implementation of GIS in transportation planning and management should be removed.
Research sponsored by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) has contributed to the information contained in this paper. Views expressed are those of the authors.
References
- AIDAIR-GENEVA Project (2004). Transport and Air Pollution Module - Presentation of the Links Between EMME/2 and the System. (Website: http:// ecolu-info.unige.ch/rechercvhe/EUREKA/AIDAIR/CUPA_English.html).
- Armstrong, J. (2000). Development of A Methodology for Estimating Vehicle Emissions. M.Engineering Thesis, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada.
- Arkansas Geographic Information Office (2004). GIS Cost Estimates. (website: www.gis.state.ar.us/).
- Bargiela, A. and Berry, R. (1999). Every BIT Counts - Enhancing the Benefits of UTC Through Distributed Applications. Traffic Technology International, Feb. 1999.
- Blin, C.R., Queen, L.P., and Maki, L.W. (1993). Geographic Information Systems: A Glossary. Minnesota Extension Service, University of Minnesota, Natural resources, NR-FO-6097-S, NR-PC-6136-S.
- Caliper Corporation (2004). TransCAD, Transportation GIS Software, Overview, Newton, Massachusetts (Website: www.caliper.com/tcovu.htm).
- Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) (2004). GIS in Transportation. (Web address: http://www.gis.fhwa.dot.gov/)
- Fletcher, D.R., (2000). Geographic Information Systems for Transportation: A Look Forward. Transportation in the New Millennium, Committee on Spatial Data and Information Science, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.
- GIS Lounge (2004). Components of GIS. (Website: http://gislounge.com/library/introgis.shtml)
- Globis Data Inc. (2004). Deployment of D.R.I.V.E.S. Montreal (website: http://www.its-sti.gc.ca/en/deployment/Quebec/DRIVES.htm)
- Khan, A.M. (1995). Application of geographic Information Systems (GIS) to Urban Transportation Planning and Management. Paper Presented at the United Nations Seminar on Urban Geographic Information Systems, City Sustainability & Environment, Cairo Egypt, December 10-14, 1995.
- Local Government Commission (2004). Geographic Information Systems: A Tool for Improving Community Liveability (www.lgc.org/freepub/land_use/factsheets/gis.html)
- Peak, K. (2000). Geographic Information Systems, A Glimpse of the Future. Traffic Engineering & Control (TEC), V.41. No.10, November 2000.
- Taylor, S. and Khan, A.M. (2003). Development of A Public Transit Information System: Use of GIS and ITS Technologies. Proceedings, Canadian Transportation Research Forum 2003 Annual Conference, pp. 293-307.
- The European Commission (2004). Cost/benefit analysis of GIS projects. (Source: website www.gisig.it/best-gis/Guides/chapter9/nine.htm)
- Thirumalai, K. (2003). ITS Integration with Commercial Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Technologies. ITS World Congress, Madrid.
- Transportation Association of Canada (TAC) (1995). Geographic Information Systems in Transportation (GIS-T), Manual of Canadian GIS-T Data Standards, Recommended Practices and Implementation Guidelines.
Ottawa. - United Nations (1995). International Seminar on GIS, City Sustainability and Environment Resolution. Cairo Egypt, December 10-14, 1995.