GISdevelopment.net --> Proceedings --> GISDECO
GIS in support of participatory land use planning in the Districts Keiyo & Marakwet, Kenya
Authors:, Julius Muchemi, Wangu Mwangi & Heinz Greijn
Corresponding Author: Julius G. Muchemi
(GIS-Consultant -ERMIS AFRICA,
PO 12327,Nakuru, Tel: 254-(0) 37-213323.
muchemi@ermis.co.ke
Co-authors: Wangu Mwangi & Heinz Greijn
(via SNV Kenya, P.O. Box 30776, Nairobi,
Tel: 254-(0) 2- 573656, Fax: 254-(0) 2- 573650
email: snvkenya@africaonline.co.kor snvkenya@net2000ke.com)
Abstract:,
This paper describes how GIS has complemented processes of participatory land use planning in parts, prone to land degradation, of the Districts Keiyo and Marakwet. The result is land use maps that make it easier for people, organized in community rooted NGOs, to analyze the problem of depletion of soil, water, and forest resources, to plan for improved land use and to monitor the impact of their efforts towards improved management of the natural resources.
1. Introduction
Keiyo and Marakwet Districts are, administratively, situated in the Rift Valley Province in the northwestern part of Kenya. Geographically, it lies between latitude 0 0 51’N to 1 0 19’N and longitude 35 0 29’E to 35 0 43’W and occupies an area of 30sq km as illustrated by figure 1. The area can be divided into three main geographic zones, which run parallel to each other in a North-South direction as shown in figure 1. These are: the highland plateau, which rises gradually from an altitude of 2,700 to 3,350 meters above sea level, on the Cherangany Hills. The Elgeyo Escarpment is the intermediate zone that rapidly gives way to the Kerio Valley. The valley is situated at 1,000 m and is formed by a narrow and long strip of approximately 80 km and by maximum 10 km wide (OP/MPND, 1991 & 2000; Chebet and Dietz, 2000; Jeatzold and Schmdt, 1983). The variation in altitude causes considerable differences in climatic conditions: low rainfall and high temperatures in the Kerio Valley, high rainfall and moderate temperatures in the highlands. Rainfall distribution is highly influenced by topography. The highlands are characterized by high bimodal rainfall figures ranging between 1,200 mm to 1,700 mm while rainfall in the escarpment ranges between 1,000 mm to 1,400 mm per year. The Kerio Valley receives between 700 mm to 1,000 mm. However, the rainfall pattern in the valley is quite erratic and figures as low as 220 mm per year have been recorded (MALDM/GTZ, 1994).
The problem of natural resource degradation
The natural resources in the Eastern part of Keiyo and Marakwet, characterized by a steep escarpment, are being depleted at an alarming rate (IEA, 1998; Muchemi, 2002). Increasing population pressure and lack of employment opportunities in other sectors force farmers to cultivate on ever-steeper slopes. Forests are cleared to give way to farmland. The agricultural techniques are often destructive for the soil. Too many people in Keiyo and Marakwet have persisted shifting cultivation and free-range cattle holding. This has resulted in degradation of water sources, rampant soil erosion, and declining soil fertility. Rainwater that used to infiltrate and feed the springs and rivers now runs off the surface with ravaging speed. On its way, it carries fertile soil particles downwards to the Kerio River and ultimately to the bottom of Lake Turkana, lost forever for the people of Keiyo and Marakwet. The springs discharge lower volumes of water and the land becomes less productive forcing the people to clear more forests and to cultivate even steeper slopes. It is a vicious cycle that can turn the escarpment zone, which still looks very much like paradise, into a barren landscape, many rocks, …and few people.
Land use planning: a first step to combat land degradation
Beginning in July 2000 SARDEP 1 facilitated a participatory land use planning process in the districts of Keiyo and Marakwet (SAREP Keiyo/Marakwet, 2000).
The participatory process was adapted to ensure the community takes a central role in the development of land use plans hence enhancing ownership and responsibility of the plans (FAO/UNEP 1992, 1993,1997, 1999; Schonhuth and Kievelitz, 1993).
Communities living in the six agro-ecological zones, called transect areas 2 , were invited to come together to analyse their physical environment, identify the natural resources on which they depend and develop plans for using these resources in a fair and sustainable way for the present and future generations.
Once a community has developed and agreed on its land use plan, it elects a committee to coordinate these activities in the future. These committees, known as Community Based Natural Resource Management Committees (CBNRM) are now functional in most sub-locations.
The CBNRM committees are responsible for coordinating activities of different groups within the sub-location to ensure that they adhere to the land use plan. They may also undertake activities themselves aimed at protecting the environment
1 1 SARDEP, the Semi-Arid Rural Development Programme, is implemented by SNV Kenya (Netherlands Development Organization) under a bi-lateral agreement between the Government of Kenya and the donor, the Government of the Netherlands. SARDEP operates through three decentralized sub-programmes in the districts of Kajiado, Keiyo & Marakwet and Laikipia. The programme contributes investment funds and where explicitly required, technical assistance to facilitate the implementation of community managed development processes and activities.
2 Transect areas are geographic concentration areas in which SARDEP works. Transects are zones within which people share resources particularly water. All transects contain a strip of highland, escarpment and valley. Since land use upstream impacts on the livelihoods of the people down stream SARDEP has facilitated the establishment of NGOs in these transects. One of the most important roles of these NGOs is to facilitate consultations on land use between the communities in a Transect. within the sub-location.
The PLUP process is the focus of this paper, which contains highlights of the PLUP exercises from four sub-locations of Transect M -illustrated in figure 2, an overview of the main environmental problems and the plans developed to enable the communities to manage their natural resources in a sustainable manner.
During the exercises, community members identified the main natural resources that they have, for instance water sources and forests. They discussed how the environmental situation had changed over the years: Was the forest bigger ten years ago than it is today? Are people finding it more difficult to get clean water?. All these problems were listed, starting with the most important ones. Once the problems had been ranked, the community members proposed strategies for better management of these resources in the future. These strategies were put down in natural resource management maps -- for instance showing where the community would like to maintain the forest boundary.
Parallel to the PLUP process, a project was initiated to develop natural resource maps for each sub-location. The maps were developed after photographs of the area had been taken from the air by an expert in this technology. The maps indicate exactly where the rivers, forests, rangelands, and cultivated land are located. For some transects, aerial maps had been done in 1991 and so it was possible to compare how much the landscape had changed in ten years. The maps make it easier for local communities to locate and monitor important natural resources in order to adhere to their conservation targets.
2.1 Summary of the PLUP Process in transect M
The PLUP exercises took place in four sub-locations within Transect M, namely Kapsowar, Kapsumai, Kipsaiya and Sisiya. In each sub-location, meetings were held at three sites to ensure that as many people as possible could participate. The sessions were facilitated by SARDEP transect advisors assisted by transect officials, local leaders and members of the communities. The following process was generally followed in all the sub-locations:
Stage 1: General introduction
Before the actual PLUP sessions were held, there was awareness raising to inform community members about the exercise and encourage them to turn up in large numbers so as to plan for their future. The local administration (assistant chiefs) was involved in introducing the teams to the community at all the sites.
Stage 2: Expectations
At this stage, the community members were asked to share what they wanted to achieve during the exercise. At every meeting, participants expressed their wish to solve their urgent problems, such as lack of water, roads, and income generating activities. Some participants wanted to know what SARDEP would do about natural resource management since the community action plans developed in 1995 had not yet been implemented.
Stage 3: Explaining the mission and procedures
The PLUP facilitating teams then explained how the exercise would be carried out. Participants were informed that the aim of SARDEP was to support the community in assessing the present status and use of their natural resources, identifying where there are problems and developing realistic and measurable plans for the future management of these resources in a sustainable way.
Stage 4: Community discussions
The participants were divided into two groups to come up with the following: Group 1: drawing the sub-location map; listing and locating the existing natural resources and identifying the trends in the use and management of natural resources (the situation 10 years ago, at present and in 10 years to come).
Group 2: identifying problems in natural resource use, ranking them in order of priority and discussing their effects. Naming the interventions that have been started already and proposing strategies for future interventions.
Stage 5: Group presentations
The two groups produced maps, trend lines, and a problem analysis, which were presented to the whole group. At the end of the day, the participants elected two key informants to represent them and accompany the facilitating team during the exercises.
Stage 6: Presentation to the Sub-Location Assembly
Once the exercises had been held at all the sites, a meeting was held at the sub-location level at which the findings of each site meeting were presented for comments and approval. Once the results had been approved, the community agreed that the key informants together with the facilitators would compile the data from the different sites into one sub-location report.
Stage 7: Data synthesis and printing of sub-location report
The key informants from each site came together with the facilitators to compile the data for the sub-location.
Stage 8: Presentation of final report and formation of follow up committee
The drafting committee presented the final report to the community for final approval. The community then elected a committee to carry the process forward and implement the community land-use plans.
Stage 9: Mapping the community land use plans Following the PLUP exercises an expert was contracted to analyze the data further to develop maps that the community could use to better conceptualize their locality and to monitor the impact of their land use interventions in the future. The maps detail the land use patterns for each sub-location, with a summary of the agreed community interventions as illustrated in figure 3, 4, 5, and 6. The mapping process was carried out in a participatory manner, with community members being given an opportunity to confirm the actual features on the ground.
2.2 Summary of the Land Use mapping exercise in transect M
Parallel to the PLUP process and land use mapping exercise was conducted. The mapping process has become an essential planning tool because it incorporates the community ideas into a spatial context that is needed to better conceptualize community land use plans.
The method that was chosen was aerial photography (as opposed to other mapping approaches like satellite imagery and ground survey techniques) because it had the advantage of displaying ground features in an easily recognizable way (Lillesand and Kielfer, 1994). There was the added advantage of existing aerial photographs that had been taken in 1991, making it possible to compare the past and current environmental situation in an objective way.
The mapping process involved the following stages:
Stage 1: Aerial photography planning and acquisition
First, the extent of the project area (transects) was determined to know the area to be photographed and the costs. An airplane was then flown over the area to acquire the photographs. Once this was done the aerial photos were enlarged by six times from the original 23cm x 23cm so that the community members would be able to identify the ground features from their locality in the photographs.
Stage 2: Aerial photograph interpretation
The community members were assisted to clearly identify the ground features on the enlarged aerial photographs. They identified the existing natural resources (e.g. forests and water resources), infrastructure, and administrative boundaries (transects, sub-locations and villages). To determine the extent of natural resource degradation the community compared the main land uses seen on the aerial photographs from 1991 and those of 2000/2001. The differences between the two years were noted and marked using erasable coloured pencils.
Field surveys were then conducted to bring out the information on natural degradation that could not be determined using the aerial photographs. These included soil fertility, soil erosion and dry watercourses.
Stage 3: Map composition and analysis
The results from the aerial photograph interpretation were compiled to create maps that gave the actual positions of the features on the ground. This involved:
Using a suitable computer programme (MapInfo) and process (GIS analysis), the areas occupied by each land use system were determined and the results presented through tables and pie charts. Further the land use changes over the period were determined by subtracting the land use areas of year 1991 from that of 2000.
Finally, a technical report detailing all the mapping and field survey results was prepared and included in a publication.
3. The way forward
The result of land use planning and mapping were included in a colorful and durable publication, which was widely distributed among the households in, transect M. The expectations are that this document will:
“Women collect water three to six times a day and this has made them overworked and thin. Women do not wash as they would like, due to a lot of work and not enough water”
Kapsowar: Water is life
Water plays a central role in the life of human beings. Although the green hills surrounding Kapsowar provide plenty of the life giving liquid -- enjoyed by the residents of Eldoret, fifty kilometers away -- many of the residents of Kapsowar still have to walk everyday to springs or rivers, where they can only find contaminated water.
Irene Ruto and Joosephina Cherotich are members of Ngorngoroi Water Project. Like other women in the community they have to fetch water from a long distance, making a round trip of one and a half hours each time. During the rainy season, they fetch water from Arror River, which is brown with silt. They used to get water from the Kapsowar water project, but the pipes were destroyed during some construction work.
At Cheles Primary School, ‘the highest point in Kapsowar’ local residents held their PLUP sessions. To them it is no wonder that soon after, a huge water tank was constructed on the site as part of the Kapsowar water project. They can now ‘smell’ the water coming. There is excitement in the air as people from as far away as Kapsumai also expect to benefit. “Water is full in the tanks. We’re waiting for the distribution lines,” says a happy James Rotich, Chairman of the school and a well-known Kapsowar businessman. “It will be the end of our problems,” others say. “Now we will be able to plant crops all through the year and increase our income,” is the refrain on everyone’s lips.
Few seem to consider the environmental problems that are already evident and which will get worse, even with availability of piped water. The truth is Kapsowar town is killing the surrounding natural habitat. Rubbish from the town is regularly dumped in the forest -- in some instances just meters away from important water intakes. James Rotich admits to this: “I collect the dirt from my hotel and throw it in the forest,” he says frankly. He blames the town council for not organizing refuse collection and disposal in a comprehensive way.
According to the council, the community needs awareness on digging rubbish pits. Councillors say that a sanitation master plan has been developed, but the reality is that not much is being done now to address the growing problem of waste disposal.
Even in the rural outskirts of the town, the rivers are polluted due to farming right up to the banks and watering of animals directly in the river. People fetch drinking water downstream as others bathe and wash their clothes in the same water upstream. People are destroying the catchments by cutting trees and grazing animals in the forest. Everyone is aware that things are getting worse, but no one seems to know what to do.
PLUP aims at addressing such environmental management issues. During the community planning sessions water emerged as a central concern in the sub-location. Reduced vegetation cover, which is closely linked to declining water volumes, was ranked as the biggest problem. The proposed interventions included rehabilitation and expansion of Kapsowar mission water project and spring protection and development around 9 springs in the sub-location. As an alternative, roof catchments for domestic water needs was proposed, as well as protection of riverbanks.
3.2 Kapsumai
Kapsumai:
Is it the beginning of the end for the beautiful forests of Kapsumai? “Our forest is still intact. In Keiyo, they have the shamba system (Non residential farms), but here our only profit is the cold water, honey, herbs, and birds. The animals profit from it, not us,” Mzee Chepkurui Even as Mzee Chepkurui talks, one can see signs of encroachment in the nearby forest, known as “Section 15”. Portions have been cut out for farming although the clans are supposed to be responsible for their section of the forest. Another old man, Mzee Johana Kwambai, says that greed causes encroachment. “People have changed, they don’t care anymore about the forest. When they are caught, encroachers simply bribe.” A neighbour adds that people know what they are doing is wrong, but they want the immediate benefits. During the PLUP, it emerged that destruction of the forest was one of the chief concerns in the sub-location. Many of the interventions planned for the period 2000-2005 were related to tree planting and
protecting water sources in the forest. Participants admitted that cutting down of trees and encroaching into the forest for farming is on the increase. The high demand for firewood and need for building materials makes it very tempting for local people to exploit the forest. Some of the solutions proposed to address the forest problem included planting trees on farms and adopting energy saving technologies to reduce the amount of firewood used. The need to plant trees near water sources was also stressed to conserve the available water.
One community member who is putting these ideas into action is Sammy Koech, a young farmer who was also elected chairperson of the CBNRM committee. His farm is a model of beautiful green trees everywhere and he manages a nursery where he experiments on various species of trees. He has planted over 600 trees on his farm and has been supplying neighbours with seedlings for the last three years, selling about 3,000 to 6,000 seedlings each season. “When I first planted the trees my neighbours thought I was destroying the farm,” he explains. “But now they see the benefits and there is a large demand for trees. All the seedlings I planted last year are finished.” He says that more people are also starting nurseries on their farms.
It is no wonder that Koech was asked to chair the committee. He would like to start by raising awareness on the value of trees. He notes however that the people destroying the forest are mostly the young, who do not value the traditional rules on conserving natural resources. He would like to encourage the community to return to the old ways of guarding the forest, where elders are responsible for looking after each section.
The local chief added that he was working with the forest department to remove people that were farming in the forest. He said he was already working with the CBNRM committees to coordinate these activities.
3.3 Kipsaiya
Kipsaiya: Farmers speak out on the rewards of good soil management
Mrs Susana David clearly recalls how life was before her family laid down soil and water conservation structures in 1998.
“All the topsoil was being washed down to a swampy area known as Tombolol when rains poured. There was a time my legs sunk to a depth of one foot inside mud of soil from our farm, which had been washed down to the swamp. Many of my maize and bean seeds germinated in the swamp. I used to harvest only seven bags of maize then,”
Susan narrates. Some of the measures taken by the family include planting napier grass strips and grevillia trees on the terraces. Below the terraces, they have planted some banana plants.
Susana’s family is now reaping the benefits of their investment. Maize yields have risen to sixteen (16 bags) on the same piece of land.
“I thank the agricultural extension staff. It was through their advice that we have diversified enterprises in our farm.” Susana continues. Now bananas, pyrethrum, citrus fruits, and avocados provide extra sources of income. After their catchment (Tombolol) won the national soil and water conservation trophy Susana’s husband was among those that were taken on a tour to Tanzania. On his return, he established a tree nursery and are now selling seedlings at prices ranging from five to ten shillings per seedling. “We shall continue improving,” Susana concludes with a smile.
Mr Philemon Yator -- Vice Chairman of Tombolol catchment -- tells a similar story. Before the rehabilitation of the catchment, his farm was yielding only three bags of maize. The land was seriously eroded, leaving only infertile soil. After rehabilitation, through laying of soil and water conservation structures and improved farming methods, the maize yield has increased to ten bags. “This area is known as ‘Kasakau’ meaning dry barren area but I propose the name to be changed to mean ‘better’, ” Philemon jokes. He thanks the DPT (Division Planning Team) Mr Chemwaka and Mr. Chomboi for the sensitisation trainings and tours in different parts of the country to educate farmers on the importance of soil and water conservation. “Everybody who implemented what he learnt has seen positive results,” he states.
Divina Julius, another farmer in the catchments, urges farmers to plant more crop friendly trees on their farms for improved yields. For Joseph Cheboi and Peter Cherop, there is need for young people to look into ways of diversifying their income and not to depend only on farming. The two young men buy maize and transport it to millers in Eldoret and Kisumu.
Incidences of declining fertility confirm the need for soil conservation Mr Christopher Toris, chairperson of Kipsaiya sub-location Environmental Committee cautions that we should not generalize about declining soil fertility in the division due to soil erosion. He says that farmers used to experience low crop yields, but yields have increased in recent years. “It is only in some few farms and sections which have infertile soils. Many farmers have adhered to the advice given by the agricultural staff on soil and water conservation and this is evident in many farms, which have terraces,” he says. He says that the local environmental committee has been sensitizing people on sustainable farming practices. “However some farmers are reluctant and they are the ones practicing poor farming techniques, leading to low yields,” he explains.
When interviewed by SARDEP Transect Advisor Joseph Maina, one farmer from Kamok area said the poor performance of crops was due to the poor quality of seeds. When they compared two plots planted with the same seeds in which one plot had better crops than the other, the farmer agreed there was a problem on the side of soils.
When another farmer was asked why some people were destroying terraces, he replied that terraces are banks of fertile soil and that they are destroyed to spread the fertile soil to the whole farm. After destroying the stabilized terraces, however, it takes quite a long time for another structure to stabilize during which time there is soil erosion and reduced soil fertility.
3.4 Sisiya
Sisiya: Traditional buffer zone suffers from over-exploitation
In recent years a new name has been given to parts of the escarpment -- buffer zone. This is an area which is not strictly a national reserve, but whose resources should be used in a restricted way so as to protect the fragile natural environment. But the idea of using the resources found in the escarpment in a restricted way is not new. The local people have always been careful not to overexploit the area, which they call ‘lagam’.For generations they depended on the lagam for building materials, herbs and medicines, as well as foods such as wild fruits, especially during times of drought. Before the colonial times, people escaped to the Lagam during times of conflict with various tribes -- for instance the Maasai, Nandi and Kipsigis. In recent times, Marakwet people in the Kerio valley have used the lagam as a refuge when attacked by the neighboring Pokots.
Historically the clans were responsible for conserving the lagam within their area. Clan lands were carved in vertical strips all the way from the forest in the highlands, through the escarpment and down to the Kerio valley. The section of the escarment in Sisiya location belongs to the Lawich clan. Increasingly, however, people are encroaching on the lagam and slowly destroying its rich biodiversity. The reasons are many and complex. The people escaping into the lagam because of violence in the valley have been forced to settle here and to grow food for their survival. This is unlike the past when people would settle only briefly in the escarpment and then move out again once the threat of war was gone. Today people are staying on as they have nowhere else to go. In addition, the neigbouring town of Kapsowar is growing and the residents are not loyal to the clan system. As the population increases, increasing pressure is exerted on the neighbouring forests and escarpment.
Elizabeth Chemg’eno is an example of another group of people that depends on the lagam for their livelihood. She is in her thirties and says that she has always lived here. She explains, however, that there are three sections in the lagam and they only utilise the upper part, leaving the lower sections in their natural state.
The family of Mzee Martin Chelal from Kabyiawa also plants millet on the lagam through shifting cultivation. They live in the valley, and walk up everyday to cultivate their land.. Mzee Chelal has witnessed many changes to the environment over the years. “Today people are many. Before this was all forest full of animals, which we would hunt. Now all this land is owned by people,” he explains.
According to Moses Kimaiyo, the Assistant Chief for Sisiya sub-location, many people have moved here from the valley with about 200 families settling in the highland alone. They have leased land to
build their homes and to farm, while others that had bought land a long time ago have now settled there. Mr Kimaiyo believes that this migration has led to conflicts over resources. He says his administration is very alert, particularly to ensure that guns are not brought in, which can escalate the situation. He is aware of the work of the PLUP committee and believes that it will contribute to raising awareness on the need to conserve natural resources in the area.
Reference:
GIS in support of participatory land use planning in the Districts Keiyo & Marakwet, Kenya
Authors:, Julius Muchemi, Wangu Mwangi & Heinz Greijn
Corresponding Author: Julius G. Muchemi
(GIS-Consultant -ERMIS AFRICA,
PO 12327,Nakuru, Tel: 254-(0) 37-213323.
muchemi@ermis.co.ke
Co-authors: Wangu Mwangi & Heinz Greijn
(via SNV Kenya, P.O. Box 30776, Nairobi,
Tel: 254-(0) 2- 573656, Fax: 254-(0) 2- 573650
email: snvkenya@africaonline.co.kor snvkenya@net2000ke.com)
Abstract:,
This paper describes how GIS has complemented processes of participatory land use planning in parts, prone to land degradation, of the Districts Keiyo and Marakwet. The result is land use maps that make it easier for people, organized in community rooted NGOs, to analyze the problem of depletion of soil, water, and forest resources, to plan for improved land use and to monitor the impact of their efforts towards improved management of the natural resources.
1. Introduction
Keiyo and Marakwet Districts are, administratively, situated in the Rift Valley Province in the northwestern part of Kenya. Geographically, it lies between latitude 0 0 51’N to 1 0 19’N and longitude 35 0 29’E to 35 0 43’W and occupies an area of 30sq km as illustrated by figure 1. The area can be divided into three main geographic zones, which run parallel to each other in a North-South direction as shown in figure 1. These are: the highland plateau, which rises gradually from an altitude of 2,700 to 3,350 meters above sea level, on the Cherangany Hills. The Elgeyo Escarpment is the intermediate zone that rapidly gives way to the Kerio Valley. The valley is situated at 1,000 m and is formed by a narrow and long strip of approximately 80 km and by maximum 10 km wide (OP/MPND, 1991 & 2000; Chebet and Dietz, 2000; Jeatzold and Schmdt, 1983). The variation in altitude causes considerable differences in climatic conditions: low rainfall and high temperatures in the Kerio Valley, high rainfall and moderate temperatures in the highlands. Rainfall distribution is highly influenced by topography. The highlands are characterized by high bimodal rainfall figures ranging between 1,200 mm to 1,700 mm while rainfall in the escarpment ranges between 1,000 mm to 1,400 mm per year. The Kerio Valley receives between 700 mm to 1,000 mm. However, the rainfall pattern in the valley is quite erratic and figures as low as 220 mm per year have been recorded (MALDM/GTZ, 1994).
The problem of natural resource degradation
The natural resources in the Eastern part of Keiyo and Marakwet, characterized by a steep escarpment, are being depleted at an alarming rate (IEA, 1998; Muchemi, 2002). Increasing population pressure and lack of employment opportunities in other sectors force farmers to cultivate on ever-steeper slopes. Forests are cleared to give way to farmland. The agricultural techniques are often destructive for the soil. Too many people in Keiyo and Marakwet have persisted shifting cultivation and free-range cattle holding. This has resulted in degradation of water sources, rampant soil erosion, and declining soil fertility. Rainwater that used to infiltrate and feed the springs and rivers now runs off the surface with ravaging speed. On its way, it carries fertile soil particles downwards to the Kerio River and ultimately to the bottom of Lake Turkana, lost forever for the people of Keiyo and Marakwet. The springs discharge lower volumes of water and the land becomes less productive forcing the people to clear more forests and to cultivate even steeper slopes. It is a vicious cycle that can turn the escarpment zone, which still looks very much like paradise, into a barren landscape, many rocks, …and few people.
Land use planning: a first step to combat land degradation
Beginning in July 2000 SARDEP 1 facilitated a participatory land use planning process in the districts of Keiyo and Marakwet (SAREP Keiyo/Marakwet, 2000).
The participatory process was adapted to ensure the community takes a central role in the development of land use plans hence enhancing ownership and responsibility of the plans (FAO/UNEP 1992, 1993,1997, 1999; Schonhuth and Kievelitz, 1993).
Communities living in the six agro-ecological zones, called transect areas 2 , were invited to come together to analyse their physical environment, identify the natural resources on which they depend and develop plans for using these resources in a fair and sustainable way for the present and future generations.
Once a community has developed and agreed on its land use plan, it elects a committee to coordinate these activities in the future. These committees, known as Community Based Natural Resource Management Committees (CBNRM) are now functional in most sub-locations.
The CBNRM committees are responsible for coordinating activities of different groups within the sub-location to ensure that they adhere to the land use plan. They may also undertake activities themselves aimed at protecting the environment
1 1 SARDEP, the Semi-Arid Rural Development Programme, is implemented by SNV Kenya (Netherlands Development Organization) under a bi-lateral agreement between the Government of Kenya and the donor, the Government of the Netherlands. SARDEP operates through three decentralized sub-programmes in the districts of Kajiado, Keiyo & Marakwet and Laikipia. The programme contributes investment funds and where explicitly required, technical assistance to facilitate the implementation of community managed development processes and activities.
2 Transect areas are geographic concentration areas in which SARDEP works. Transects are zones within which people share resources particularly water. All transects contain a strip of highland, escarpment and valley. Since land use upstream impacts on the livelihoods of the people down stream SARDEP has facilitated the establishment of NGOs in these transects. One of the most important roles of these NGOs is to facilitate consultations on land use between the communities in a Transect. within the sub-location.
The PLUP process is the focus of this paper, which contains highlights of the PLUP exercises from four sub-locations of Transect M -illustrated in figure 2, an overview of the main environmental problems and the plans developed to enable the communities to manage their natural resources in a sustainable manner.
During the exercises, community members identified the main natural resources that they have, for instance water sources and forests. They discussed how the environmental situation had changed over the years: Was the forest bigger ten years ago than it is today? Are people finding it more difficult to get clean water?. All these problems were listed, starting with the most important ones. Once the problems had been ranked, the community members proposed strategies for better management of these resources in the future. These strategies were put down in natural resource management maps -- for instance showing where the community would like to maintain the forest boundary.
Parallel to the PLUP process, a project was initiated to develop natural resource maps for each sub-location. The maps were developed after photographs of the area had been taken from the air by an expert in this technology. The maps indicate exactly where the rivers, forests, rangelands, and cultivated land are located. For some transects, aerial maps had been done in 1991 and so it was possible to compare how much the landscape had changed in ten years. The maps make it easier for local communities to locate and monitor important natural resources in order to adhere to their conservation targets.
2.1 Summary of the PLUP Process in transect M
The PLUP exercises took place in four sub-locations within Transect M, namely Kapsowar, Kapsumai, Kipsaiya and Sisiya. In each sub-location, meetings were held at three sites to ensure that as many people as possible could participate. The sessions were facilitated by SARDEP transect advisors assisted by transect officials, local leaders and members of the communities. The following process was generally followed in all the sub-locations:
Stage 1: General introduction
Before the actual PLUP sessions were held, there was awareness raising to inform community members about the exercise and encourage them to turn up in large numbers so as to plan for their future. The local administration (assistant chiefs) was involved in introducing the teams to the community at all the sites.
Stage 2: Expectations
At this stage, the community members were asked to share what they wanted to achieve during the exercise. At every meeting, participants expressed their wish to solve their urgent problems, such as lack of water, roads, and income generating activities. Some participants wanted to know what SARDEP would do about natural resource management since the community action plans developed in 1995 had not yet been implemented.
Stage 3: Explaining the mission and procedures
The PLUP facilitating teams then explained how the exercise would be carried out. Participants were informed that the aim of SARDEP was to support the community in assessing the present status and use of their natural resources, identifying where there are problems and developing realistic and measurable plans for the future management of these resources in a sustainable way.
Stage 4: Community discussions
The participants were divided into two groups to come up with the following: Group 1: drawing the sub-location map; listing and locating the existing natural resources and identifying the trends in the use and management of natural resources (the situation 10 years ago, at present and in 10 years to come).
Group 2: identifying problems in natural resource use, ranking them in order of priority and discussing their effects. Naming the interventions that have been started already and proposing strategies for future interventions.
Stage 5: Group presentations
The two groups produced maps, trend lines, and a problem analysis, which were presented to the whole group. At the end of the day, the participants elected two key informants to represent them and accompany the facilitating team during the exercises.
Stage 6: Presentation to the Sub-Location Assembly
Once the exercises had been held at all the sites, a meeting was held at the sub-location level at which the findings of each site meeting were presented for comments and approval. Once the results had been approved, the community agreed that the key informants together with the facilitators would compile the data from the different sites into one sub-location report.
Stage 7: Data synthesis and printing of sub-location report
The key informants from each site came together with the facilitators to compile the data for the sub-location.
Stage 8: Presentation of final report and formation of follow up committee
The drafting committee presented the final report to the community for final approval. The community then elected a committee to carry the process forward and implement the community land-use plans.
Stage 9: Mapping the community land use plans Following the PLUP exercises an expert was contracted to analyze the data further to develop maps that the community could use to better conceptualize their locality and to monitor the impact of their land use interventions in the future. The maps detail the land use patterns for each sub-location, with a summary of the agreed community interventions as illustrated in figure 3, 4, 5, and 6. The mapping process was carried out in a participatory manner, with community members being given an opportunity to confirm the actual features on the ground.
2.2 Summary of the Land Use mapping exercise in transect M
Parallel to the PLUP process and land use mapping exercise was conducted. The mapping process has become an essential planning tool because it incorporates the community ideas into a spatial context that is needed to better conceptualize community land use plans.
The method that was chosen was aerial photography (as opposed to other mapping approaches like satellite imagery and ground survey techniques) because it had the advantage of displaying ground features in an easily recognizable way (Lillesand and Kielfer, 1994). There was the added advantage of existing aerial photographs that had been taken in 1991, making it possible to compare the past and current environmental situation in an objective way.
The mapping process involved the following stages:
Stage 1: Aerial photography planning and acquisition
First, the extent of the project area (transects) was determined to know the area to be photographed and the costs. An airplane was then flown over the area to acquire the photographs. Once this was done the aerial photos were enlarged by six times from the original 23cm x 23cm so that the community members would be able to identify the ground features from their locality in the photographs.
Stage 2: Aerial photograph interpretation
The community members were assisted to clearly identify the ground features on the enlarged aerial photographs. They identified the existing natural resources (e.g. forests and water resources), infrastructure, and administrative boundaries (transects, sub-locations and villages). To determine the extent of natural resource degradation the community compared the main land uses seen on the aerial photographs from 1991 and those of 2000/2001. The differences between the two years were noted and marked using erasable coloured pencils.
Field surveys were then conducted to bring out the information on natural degradation that could not be determined using the aerial photographs. These included soil fertility, soil erosion and dry watercourses.
Stage 3: Map composition and analysis
The results from the aerial photograph interpretation were compiled to create maps that gave the actual positions of the features on the ground. This involved:
- Field visits to determine the actual positions of the aerial photographs within the project area using an instrument known as a Global Positioning System (GPS)
- Field visits to clarify the exact position and nature of important ground features necessary for the community land use plans.
Using a suitable computer programme (MapInfo) and process (GIS analysis), the areas occupied by each land use system were determined and the results presented through tables and pie charts. Further the land use changes over the period were determined by subtracting the land use areas of year 1991 from that of 2000.
Finally, a technical report detailing all the mapping and field survey results was prepared and included in a publication.
3. The way forward
The result of land use planning and mapping were included in a colorful and durable publication, which was widely distributed among the households in, transect M. The expectations are that this document will:
- Raise the people’s awareness regarding environmental threats
- Be used by the people as a reference to guide them in managing the natural resource base
- Serve as a benchmark to measure the changes in land use and the natural resource base The subsequent sections of this chapter contain the land use maps and highlights of the main environmental issues for each of the four sub-locations.
“Women collect water three to six times a day and this has made them overworked and thin. Women do not wash as they would like, due to a lot of work and not enough water”
Kapsowar: Water is life
Water plays a central role in the life of human beings. Although the green hills surrounding Kapsowar provide plenty of the life giving liquid -- enjoyed by the residents of Eldoret, fifty kilometers away -- many of the residents of Kapsowar still have to walk everyday to springs or rivers, where they can only find contaminated water.
Irene Ruto and Joosephina Cherotich are members of Ngorngoroi Water Project. Like other women in the community they have to fetch water from a long distance, making a round trip of one and a half hours each time. During the rainy season, they fetch water from Arror River, which is brown with silt. They used to get water from the Kapsowar water project, but the pipes were destroyed during some construction work.
At Cheles Primary School, ‘the highest point in Kapsowar’ local residents held their PLUP sessions. To them it is no wonder that soon after, a huge water tank was constructed on the site as part of the Kapsowar water project. They can now ‘smell’ the water coming. There is excitement in the air as people from as far away as Kapsumai also expect to benefit. “Water is full in the tanks. We’re waiting for the distribution lines,” says a happy James Rotich, Chairman of the school and a well-known Kapsowar businessman. “It will be the end of our problems,” others say. “Now we will be able to plant crops all through the year and increase our income,” is the refrain on everyone’s lips.
Few seem to consider the environmental problems that are already evident and which will get worse, even with availability of piped water. The truth is Kapsowar town is killing the surrounding natural habitat. Rubbish from the town is regularly dumped in the forest -- in some instances just meters away from important water intakes. James Rotich admits to this: “I collect the dirt from my hotel and throw it in the forest,” he says frankly. He blames the town council for not organizing refuse collection and disposal in a comprehensive way.
According to the council, the community needs awareness on digging rubbish pits. Councillors say that a sanitation master plan has been developed, but the reality is that not much is being done now to address the growing problem of waste disposal.
Even in the rural outskirts of the town, the rivers are polluted due to farming right up to the banks and watering of animals directly in the river. People fetch drinking water downstream as others bathe and wash their clothes in the same water upstream. People are destroying the catchments by cutting trees and grazing animals in the forest. Everyone is aware that things are getting worse, but no one seems to know what to do.
PLUP aims at addressing such environmental management issues. During the community planning sessions water emerged as a central concern in the sub-location. Reduced vegetation cover, which is closely linked to declining water volumes, was ranked as the biggest problem. The proposed interventions included rehabilitation and expansion of Kapsowar mission water project and spring protection and development around 9 springs in the sub-location. As an alternative, roof catchments for domestic water needs was proposed, as well as protection of riverbanks.
3.2 Kapsumai
Kapsumai:
Is it the beginning of the end for the beautiful forests of Kapsumai? “Our forest is still intact. In Keiyo, they have the shamba system (Non residential farms), but here our only profit is the cold water, honey, herbs, and birds. The animals profit from it, not us,” Mzee Chepkurui Even as Mzee Chepkurui talks, one can see signs of encroachment in the nearby forest, known as “Section 15”. Portions have been cut out for farming although the clans are supposed to be responsible for their section of the forest. Another old man, Mzee Johana Kwambai, says that greed causes encroachment. “People have changed, they don’t care anymore about the forest. When they are caught, encroachers simply bribe.” A neighbour adds that people know what they are doing is wrong, but they want the immediate benefits. During the PLUP, it emerged that destruction of the forest was one of the chief concerns in the sub-location. Many of the interventions planned for the period 2000-2005 were related to tree planting and
protecting water sources in the forest. Participants admitted that cutting down of trees and encroaching into the forest for farming is on the increase. The high demand for firewood and need for building materials makes it very tempting for local people to exploit the forest. Some of the solutions proposed to address the forest problem included planting trees on farms and adopting energy saving technologies to reduce the amount of firewood used. The need to plant trees near water sources was also stressed to conserve the available water.
One community member who is putting these ideas into action is Sammy Koech, a young farmer who was also elected chairperson of the CBNRM committee. His farm is a model of beautiful green trees everywhere and he manages a nursery where he experiments on various species of trees. He has planted over 600 trees on his farm and has been supplying neighbours with seedlings for the last three years, selling about 3,000 to 6,000 seedlings each season. “When I first planted the trees my neighbours thought I was destroying the farm,” he explains. “But now they see the benefits and there is a large demand for trees. All the seedlings I planted last year are finished.” He says that more people are also starting nurseries on their farms.
It is no wonder that Koech was asked to chair the committee. He would like to start by raising awareness on the value of trees. He notes however that the people destroying the forest are mostly the young, who do not value the traditional rules on conserving natural resources. He would like to encourage the community to return to the old ways of guarding the forest, where elders are responsible for looking after each section.
The local chief added that he was working with the forest department to remove people that were farming in the forest. He said he was already working with the CBNRM committees to coordinate these activities.
3.3 Kipsaiya
Kipsaiya: Farmers speak out on the rewards of good soil management
Mrs Susana David clearly recalls how life was before her family laid down soil and water conservation structures in 1998.
“All the topsoil was being washed down to a swampy area known as Tombolol when rains poured. There was a time my legs sunk to a depth of one foot inside mud of soil from our farm, which had been washed down to the swamp. Many of my maize and bean seeds germinated in the swamp. I used to harvest only seven bags of maize then,”
Susan narrates. Some of the measures taken by the family include planting napier grass strips and grevillia trees on the terraces. Below the terraces, they have planted some banana plants.
Susana’s family is now reaping the benefits of their investment. Maize yields have risen to sixteen (16 bags) on the same piece of land.
“I thank the agricultural extension staff. It was through their advice that we have diversified enterprises in our farm.” Susana continues. Now bananas, pyrethrum, citrus fruits, and avocados provide extra sources of income. After their catchment (Tombolol) won the national soil and water conservation trophy Susana’s husband was among those that were taken on a tour to Tanzania. On his return, he established a tree nursery and are now selling seedlings at prices ranging from five to ten shillings per seedling. “We shall continue improving,” Susana concludes with a smile.
Mr Philemon Yator -- Vice Chairman of Tombolol catchment -- tells a similar story. Before the rehabilitation of the catchment, his farm was yielding only three bags of maize. The land was seriously eroded, leaving only infertile soil. After rehabilitation, through laying of soil and water conservation structures and improved farming methods, the maize yield has increased to ten bags. “This area is known as ‘Kasakau’ meaning dry barren area but I propose the name to be changed to mean ‘better’, ” Philemon jokes. He thanks the DPT (Division Planning Team) Mr Chemwaka and Mr. Chomboi for the sensitisation trainings and tours in different parts of the country to educate farmers on the importance of soil and water conservation. “Everybody who implemented what he learnt has seen positive results,” he states.
Divina Julius, another farmer in the catchments, urges farmers to plant more crop friendly trees on their farms for improved yields. For Joseph Cheboi and Peter Cherop, there is need for young people to look into ways of diversifying their income and not to depend only on farming. The two young men buy maize and transport it to millers in Eldoret and Kisumu.
Incidences of declining fertility confirm the need for soil conservation Mr Christopher Toris, chairperson of Kipsaiya sub-location Environmental Committee cautions that we should not generalize about declining soil fertility in the division due to soil erosion. He says that farmers used to experience low crop yields, but yields have increased in recent years. “It is only in some few farms and sections which have infertile soils. Many farmers have adhered to the advice given by the agricultural staff on soil and water conservation and this is evident in many farms, which have terraces,” he says. He says that the local environmental committee has been sensitizing people on sustainable farming practices. “However some farmers are reluctant and they are the ones practicing poor farming techniques, leading to low yields,” he explains.
When interviewed by SARDEP Transect Advisor Joseph Maina, one farmer from Kamok area said the poor performance of crops was due to the poor quality of seeds. When they compared two plots planted with the same seeds in which one plot had better crops than the other, the farmer agreed there was a problem on the side of soils.
When another farmer was asked why some people were destroying terraces, he replied that terraces are banks of fertile soil and that they are destroyed to spread the fertile soil to the whole farm. After destroying the stabilized terraces, however, it takes quite a long time for another structure to stabilize during which time there is soil erosion and reduced soil fertility.
3.4 Sisiya
Sisiya: Traditional buffer zone suffers from over-exploitation
In recent years a new name has been given to parts of the escarpment -- buffer zone. This is an area which is not strictly a national reserve, but whose resources should be used in a restricted way so as to protect the fragile natural environment. But the idea of using the resources found in the escarpment in a restricted way is not new. The local people have always been careful not to overexploit the area, which they call ‘lagam’.For generations they depended on the lagam for building materials, herbs and medicines, as well as foods such as wild fruits, especially during times of drought. Before the colonial times, people escaped to the Lagam during times of conflict with various tribes -- for instance the Maasai, Nandi and Kipsigis. In recent times, Marakwet people in the Kerio valley have used the lagam as a refuge when attacked by the neighboring Pokots.
Historically the clans were responsible for conserving the lagam within their area. Clan lands were carved in vertical strips all the way from the forest in the highlands, through the escarpment and down to the Kerio valley. The section of the escarment in Sisiya location belongs to the Lawich clan. Increasingly, however, people are encroaching on the lagam and slowly destroying its rich biodiversity. The reasons are many and complex. The people escaping into the lagam because of violence in the valley have been forced to settle here and to grow food for their survival. This is unlike the past when people would settle only briefly in the escarpment and then move out again once the threat of war was gone. Today people are staying on as they have nowhere else to go. In addition, the neigbouring town of Kapsowar is growing and the residents are not loyal to the clan system. As the population increases, increasing pressure is exerted on the neighbouring forests and escarpment.
Elizabeth Chemg’eno is an example of another group of people that depends on the lagam for their livelihood. She is in her thirties and says that she has always lived here. She explains, however, that there are three sections in the lagam and they only utilise the upper part, leaving the lower sections in their natural state.
The family of Mzee Martin Chelal from Kabyiawa also plants millet on the lagam through shifting cultivation. They live in the valley, and walk up everyday to cultivate their land.. Mzee Chelal has witnessed many changes to the environment over the years. “Today people are many. Before this was all forest full of animals, which we would hunt. Now all this land is owned by people,” he explains.
According to Moses Kimaiyo, the Assistant Chief for Sisiya sub-location, many people have moved here from the valley with about 200 families settling in the highland alone. They have leased land to
build their homes and to farm, while others that had bought land a long time ago have now settled there. Mr Kimaiyo believes that this migration has led to conflicts over resources. He says his administration is very alert, particularly to ensure that guns are not brought in, which can escalate the situation. He is aware of the work of the PLUP committee and believes that it will contribute to raising awareness on the need to conserve natural resources in the area.
Reference:
- Chebet S. and Dietz T (2000). Climbing the Clief. A history of the Keiyo. Kijabe Printing Press, Kenya.
- FAO/UNEP, (1992). Potential Population Supporting Capacities of Lands in the Development World. Technical report of Project INT/75/P13, based on the work of G.M. Haggins, A.H. Kassam, L. Naiken, G. Fisher, and M.M. shah.
- FAO/IIASA/UNFPA, Rome.
- FAO/UNEP, (1993). Guidelines for land use planning. FAO Development Series 1. Rome.
- FAO/UNEP, (1997). Negotiating a sustainable Future for Land. Structure and Institutional Guidelines for Land Resource Management in the 21 st Century, FAO/UNEP. Rome.
- FAO/UNEP (1999). The future of our land. Facing the challenge. Guidelines for integrated planning for sustainable management of land resources. FAO/UNEP. Rome.
- IEA, (1998). Our problems our solutions. An economic and public policy agenda for Kenya. In: Wamuyu G. and Robert S. (ed), Institute of economic affairs, Nairobi.
- Jeatzold R., Schmdt H., (1983). Natural conditions and farm management information. Farm management handbook of Kenya Vol.11, Nairobi Kenya
- Lillesand T.M. and and Kielfer R.W., (1994). Remote sensing and image interpretation. Johnwiley & Sons , inc.
- MALDP/GTZ, (1994). Rangeland management handbook of Kenya vol. 11,7.
- OP/MPND, (1991, 1999, & 2000). Marakwet District Development Plan
- Muchemi J.G., (2002). Participatory land use mapping for sustainable community-based natural resource management in Kenya: Approaches, Techniques, and experiences of community-based natural resource management in SNV/SARDEP Keiyo Marakwet, Kenya. Paper presented to a regional meeting of SNV programe teams fomLosotho, Mozambique, Uganda, Tnazania, Ethiopia, Botswana, Zambia, and Kenya held at SNV/SARDEP Eldoret.
- SARDEP Keiyo/Marakwet (2000). SARDEP Keiyo & Marakwet Annual work plan 2000.
- Schonhuth, M. and Kievelitz, U. (1993). Participatory learning approaches. Rapid Rural Appraisal, Participatory Appraisal. An introductory guide. GTZ, Weisbaden.