GISdevelopment.net --> Thesis
Geographic Information System (GIS) offers great opportunity to national, regional and local emergency organizations to make planning and management of preparedness, mitigation and other measures which reduce losses of earthquake (Nuraliyev, 1 999). Since all problems with planning and management are related to location, they are geographically referenced and require spatial analysis and presentation, a GIS platform is a very helpful tool for planning and decision making in emergency management. Urban information systems, which is a field of GIS, used by the urban authorities, link the urban fragments and spaces with the features of the city and the citizens.
In this chapter, the main concepts, their components and the processes are described. The concepts of urban information system and earthquake management are examined seperately. The cities, where the urban information technologies are completely used and the cities which are ready for any earthquake, are explained for giving the best practices and taking some good results for the next initiatives for the use of these new technologies for the earthquake protection and recovery. The purpose of this chapter, is to extract information and systems from the positive examples for the proposals of this thesis.
2.1 Urban Information Systems
2.1.1 The Components of Urban Information Systems
Urban information systems combine map images with other kinds of information (like tabular data) for the purpose of analyzing spatial relationships among data related to locations in the city (Huxhold, 1 99 ).
An urban information system is the combination of talented persons (Geographic Information System team), spatial and descriptive data, analytic methods and computer software and hardware- all organized to automate, manage and deliver information through geographic presentation (Zeiler, 1 999).
Urban information systems include physical, technical, social, economic and administrative data, base maps, land use maps, master and development plans, the land information and cadastral maps. The system can make queries from legal documents, reports about the spaces, the citizens and result thematic maps like building, population and infrastructure maps. The building maps show building occupancy, construction type or date, number of floors, license information, users information and so on. The system may contain transportation maps, traffic-density maps, shortest path for the firefighters or ambulance drivers. According to the population, the decisions can be made about the locations of the social facilities like schools, health centers or green areas, utility service areas, telecommunication, gas, electricity (Reis,1 996). The analyses can be made about the topography, 3D surfaces, network analysis, service area analysis etc. This system can be applied in different administrative districts like a neighborhood or a city, or a county in federal governments.
All these systems are built for recognizing, understanding, planning, directing, monitoring and controlling the city for an effective and efficient urban management.
2.1.2 The Advantages of Urban Information Systems
Urban information systems make things easier and can be used in many fields that study with maps in urban scale.
Urban information systems bring automation. Graphical data can be visualized with rich display tools, can be connected, related with non-graphical data, queried and measured. Thematic maps can be analyzed, synthesized and alternatives can be produced. The database of the system builds spatial and topological relationships. Classifications can be done easily. Real-time updating is very easy, the integration with the other technologies like global positioning systems, remote sensing or internet is strong. Some charts, tables, statistics, graphics and ready reports can be taken from the system (Kim and Levine, 1 996).
Urban information system is a decision-support system which improves the accuracy and quality of the studies with computers and saves time. The system prevents duplication, loss of effort, and makes comparisons easily.
Urban planning and geography is the science of urban information system. They provide framework for studying complex systems. Urban information system is an instrument for implementing geographical thinking. It shows context and content, patterns, linkages and trends. The organizational consequences of urban information system are data sharing, work flow and co-ordination, teaming and communication (ESRI GIS Day, 2000).
2.1.3. Urban Information Systems In Turkey and In Other Countries
Beginning in the late 1 950s in the world, planners started to develop and use computerized models, planning information systems and decision-support systems to improve performance (Nedovic-Budic, 2000). They have found tools to enhance their analytical, geospatial technologies that differ from one country to another. The industrialized information societies are well adapted to this technology. They use it in many fields, the governments apply urban information systems in all aspects of the planning process, including data collection, storage, data analysis and presentation, planning and policy making, communication with the public, policy implementation and administration.The United States is the pioneer in this field, they began working with urban information systems in 1 970s. Canada and Australia have developed systems, also European countries like France, Germany and Holland have been successful in applying these technologies. Turkey is a latecomer in this field because of financial problems, the other priorities, the lack of technical expertise and different mentalities of the administrators. But today, urban information system is a popular magic word in the local governments. First initiative local governments like Bursa and Aydin cities began to use urban information systems in the mid-1 990s, then other three metropolitan municipalities, I stanbul, Ankara and I zmir made studies about digitising the maps, plans and creating inventories about their cities. In this section, first, Turkey examples and their studies about urban information systems are explained, then the other world examples are described for their different uses and applications.
2.1.3.1. Urban Information Systems in Turkey
The Municipality of Greater Bursa built urban information systems in 1 996 as one of the beginners, aiming to give better service to their citizens (Bursa Büyük ehir Belediyesi, http://www.bursa-bld.gov.tr, visited on 27..2000). The goals of the system are; revitalization of infrastructure planning, prevention of illegal building construction, better management of urban traffic, easy and practical use of deed and cadastre information, increase the revenues of the government with property and garbage taxes, monitoring the city development and construction information and situation. The demographic analysis and population forecast techniques are tried and charts are prepared on the maps by the help of GIS.
Today, The Municipality of Greater Bursa with its three district municipalities, finished to create urban inventory. The database of the system includes the address information about the building and the household. In the building database, there are fields of street name, building type, number of floors, number of flats, heating type. In the household database, the data contains number of household, renter/owner, name, surname, occupancy type, outerdoor number and electricity, water numbers. There is detailed information about deed records. Another database is built for the development plans. The different attributes of blocks can be found in the databases of the plans. Major investments caused a very rapid growth in the city and the urban authorities would like to catch the current geographic information technologies in the twenty first century.
Another example is from the capital, Municipality of Greater Ankara. They prepare new projects for technological development in management. The urban information system called AKB S (Ankara Büyük ehir Belediyesi, http://www.ankara.bel.gov.tr/akbis, visited on 1 2.2.2000) aims to give better services to public, better city planning, better green areas to control the pollution, to make development plans to prepare cadastral database, better transportation planning and to find emergency paths. They make studies to reach these goals in design phase, but ASK department which deals with water and sewer system, is more active in urban information system. They planned digital base maps, buildings, street centerlines, important facilities, the piping and the electricity system, manholes etc. (Ankara Su ve Kanalizasyon I daresi, http:// www.aski.gov.tr, visited on 1 2.2.2000). They built 3D models of land and made analysis on them. Also the payments of citizens can be queried. Now they study on hydrological modelling with GIS in collaboration with a university. The Municipality of Greater Ankara tries several ways for livable, safe and better quality of urban environments by the help of technological tools.
Figure 2. AKB S Ankara Urban Information System
Source: Municipality of Greater Ankara and ASK (http://www.ankara.bel.gov.tr/akbis, visited on 1 2.2.2000, http://www.aski.gov.tr, visited on 1 2.2.2000)
2.1.3.2. Urban Information Systems in Other Countries
The municipalities of Canada have been successful in applying urban information and multi- participant systems. A good example is the City of Edmonton. Edmonton’s Geographic Base Information System (Mines, 1 997) is a multi-participant process that shares geographic data. GBIS has a cadastre map. To this base, authorized participants add their own data; streets, addresses, land use, ownership and utilities. Participants can also create their own service areas in the neighborhoods.Urban planners use GBIS to integrate addresses, socio- economic and land use data, while landscape planners use it to plan the green areas, engineers use GBIS to design the streets and utilities. Fire, ambulance and police services use it for dispatch and decide where best to place their sources. It is also used for garbage collection, route locations, meter reading etc. It is a successful shared urban information system integrated with the internet.
Another example is a U.S city, Fort Lauderdale in Florida, which has satisfying results in GIS (Burton et al. 1 998). City funded GIS for a period of five years at three million dollars in 1 996. They tried on a pilot project (the base map development project) and understood the roles of GIS in updating and maintaining the other data layers. Phase 1 consists of developing action plans in each department and training. Phase 2 consists of applications in city- wide utility, phase 3 consists of continued base map enhancements and other projects. The application plans are suitable to Huxhold’s (99 ) triangle. In the triangle, there is policy at the top level, management in the center and operation in the bottom level. From a policy perspective, the need assessment turned to specific actions. From management perspective, GIS improved productivity and analysis. From operational perspective, the project developed system design and data sharing. This is a good example measured in terms of creative policy making and effective operations.
Historic City, Jerusalem, Israel uses latest urban information system technology in many municipal projects. The system supports decision making at all levels, a central database for all agencies and common city information for all urban planners. It also contains area basemaps, plan information and the outlines of the facilities (ESRI Local Gov. in Europe, 2000). Jerusalem’s GIS need is divided into two groups. One is a platform for managerial, statistical systems and geographic databases for developing applications. The other is to create a technical standard for mapping and editing of engineering systems. Many applications are built in the municipality, for example a system for road accidents, a decision-support system for education facilities, inventory control and planning. Urban information system also supports analyses for social trends and social planning. Furthermore, interaction between the local government and the other agencies can be coordinated with this system.
Developing and building on such solution for the many branches in the municipality requires a team. The team manager is responsible for work plans, defines strategies, coordinates and deals with consultants and contractors. Programmers and system analysts develop applications and infrastructure solutions, develop and test software. The manufacturing engineer put parameters for building databases, controls quality and updates the policies and databases A geographer work with the contractors for as-built and other vector plans. A technician digitises and produces maps. The operator provide data to contractors. Jerusalem’s GIS center manages many projects. A modern urban information system future is founded for this historic city.
2.2 Earthquake Management
Earthquake, as the natural hazard, is the part of the world around human being. Its occurence is inevitable. It destroys natural environment but the natural environment takes care of itself. When it strikes the man-made environment, however, the result is often a “disaster” (N.Carolina E.Management Workbook, http://www.ncem.org/ mitigation/Library/workbook.pdf, visited on 07/07/200 ). Disasters occur when an earthquake crosses paths with the man-made environment, such as buildings, roads, lifelines and crops. The man-made environment, in contrast to natural environment, often needs some emergency assistance.
In the following sections, before proceeding a further discussion of the preparedness, recovery strategies and the role of GIS in earthquake management, some relevant terms are defined. These terms are taken from the internationally agreed glossary of basic terms related to disaster management of International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR, http://www.unisdr.org/unisdr/glossaire.htm, visited on 1 0.0 .2002)
2.1. The Terms in Earthquake Management
Emergency: A sudden and usually unforeseen event that calls for immediate measures to minimize its adverse consequences.
Disaster: A serious disruption of the functioning of society, causing widespread human, material or environmental losses which exceed the ability of affected society to cope using only its own resources. Disasters are often classified according to their cause (natural or manmade).
Risk: Expected losses (of lives, persons injured, property damaged, and economic activity disrupted) due to a particular hazard for a given area and reference period. Based on mathematical calculations, risk is the product of hazard and vulnerability.
Hazard: A threatening event, or the probability of occurence of a potentially damaging phenomenon within a given time period and area.
Vulnerability: Degree of loss (from 0% to 1 00%) resulting from a potentially damaging phenomenon.
2.2.2. The Phases In Earthquake Management
Earthquake management can be seperated into some phases; they depend on time that characterize actions taken such as pre-event, during the event and the post- event. (Radke et al., 2000)
Mitigation: Activities trying to minimize the probability of a disaster. e.g. regulations, carefully planning, land use and building management.
Preparedness: Actions taken before a disaster occurs, when mitigation cannot prevent disasters. This includes operational precautions, loss predictions early warning systems, stocks and education.
Response: Actions following a disaster, this is co-ordination, search and rescue, damage assessment and minimize the loss for a coming damage.
Recovery: Studies to return the systems into normal functionality in the long term . e.g. moving debris, access to water, food, temporary housing etc.
Earthquake management includes many disciplines, engineering part as well as social part, adminstration as well as planing, what can be done in a period of time can be summarized as before, during and after the earthquake.
Figure 2.2 Disaster management cycle
Source:University of Wisconsin Disaster Management Center
(http://epdweb.engr.wisc.edu/dmc/courses/aimscope/AA02_gif/AA020 0.gif, visited on 1 5..200 )
2.2.2.1.Before the earthquake:
The mitigation offers many benefits for the public. The mitigation:
Maps can be prepared showing topography and earthquake-prone areas, locations of critical facilities and any available sources of data. Step 2 is the vulnerability assessment, some calculations and predictions are done in this step. Assessing the place’s vulnerability involves identifying areas of greatest risk, conducting an inventory of those areas and estimating the cost of damage to critical residential, commercial, industrial and public facilities. Step 3 aims to produce some policies about restricting development in risk areas, protecting ciritical facilities, allowing improvements of engineering techniques for strengthening the buildings, some legal studies about building codes. The last step is one of the most important steps. It contains logistics and communication planning, public awareness and training, some practices and experiments about preparedness for a future earthquake (zmir Büyük ehir Belediyesi, http://www.izmir-bld.gov.tr/izmirdeprem/izmirrapor.htm, visited on 27..2000).
By integrating these steps into governmental activities, the community can reduce its vulnerability to the earthquakes. Mitigation is an on-going process and should be re-examined from time to time.
2.2.2.2.During or just after the earthquake:
Just after the disaster, search and rescue activities, transport and communication, evacuation are the priorities to operate. Quick rescue of people by search and rescue teams from collapsed buildings after the impact of a destructive earthquake can save considerable number of lives. Damage and risk should be assessed. An aerial survey may be able to identify the damage areas very rapidly (Coburn and Spence,1 992). Sheltering/ protection is an important subject to manage. Distribution of water, food and public services should be provided quickly. Medical resources needs should be calculated rapidly and the authorities want help from national and international organizations. The hospital capacities are improved. The debris are moved and deads are burried immediately. The follow-on disasters after the earthquake like fires, industrial failures etc. should be tackled by directing the teams from the shortest paths by the help of emergency plans. Earthquake preparedness plans should include locations of temporary camps and houses. According to these plans, the operations are quickly organized by the authorities for the sanitation and the safety of the public.
2.2.2.3.After the earthquake:
“Emergency management is 1 0 percent telecommunications, 20 percent operations and 70 percent information. Information, like people and money, is a resource and the only resource that make possible the co-ordination of vital services during an emergency.” (Menon, 1 999:6) In the short-term recovery process, action- takers are the first, the city deparments, all departments share information through the databases on maps. To have the right data at the right time is critical during emergency to take an organized action. These are the unique maps in one location which direct the managers to estimate and make quick decisions, time is one person’s life at those moments and to visualize the related information make things easier.
In the long-term recovery process, rehabilitation and reconstruction operations should be held by the administration. Resource and need analysis are made for the society. It is needed to coordinate and integrate the reconstruction plans of the various sectors. Studies must be done for repairing the economic damage (Coburn and Spence,1 992). The physical planning of the reconstruction of the damaged area starts immediately. Site selections and alternatives are searched for the settlements.
New projects and improving codes, economy and the training are effective tools for reducing the risk.
2.2.2.4.The Role of GIS in the Phases of Earthquake Management
Much of the information that has to be coordinated in an emergency is spatial: the location of incidents, building collapses and transportation routes. A maproom becomes a center in earthquake management. Computerised mapping is increasingly used for earthquake management with the current developments in geographical information systems being used to link map with databases and other information (Coburn and Spence,1 992). Databases that become useful in emergency include resource lists, inventory of stocks, medical supplies, tents, personnel and contact lists. Keeping those lists, requests for assistance and response is complicated but vital for effective management.
Earthquake management has three objectives. These focus on people, place, processes (Levitt,1 997). The following processes are necessary to reach these objectives:
Planning: Emergency management begins with defining the problems and their locations. These requirements deal with maps. GIS is a tool which has the capability of handling real-time data. e.g. location of recent earthquakes. GIS can have a major role in predicting future disasters (IDNDR, http://www.disaster.info.desastres.net/idndr/idndr.htm, visited on 07.06.200 ).
When hazards like flood, fire hazard areas etc. are displayed with other maps like buildings, houses, streets, pipe and power lines, warehouses etc., government can start to design emergency plans (ESRI white papers, http://www.esri.com/library/whitepapers/pdfs/emermgmt.pdf, visited on 04.05.200 ). GIS environment, database related with maps, has the advantages such as asssessment of the situation through many analysis, implication of hazards in terms of risks and planing, spatial modelling, querying and map preparing for efficient implementation, visualization and simulation of different scenarios. (Thapar,1 998, http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/natural_hazards/fire/nhf0001.htm, visited on 04.07.2000).
Mitigation: In order to minimize or reduce the risk, the mitigation needs can be defined. The priority areas can be selected. The limits can be put for buildings in high- hazard areas. Considering the geological field studies, damage can forecasted in an expected magnitude of an earthquake or displaying different layers of data in GIS like topography, weather and vegetation, high potential fire areas can be found. GIScan identify critical facilities, impact zones, paths, buffers can be put for protective actions. Socio- economic growth trends, demographic situations, infratructure status can be identified from database and it is useful for mitigation analysis (ESRI White Paper, 1 999, Thapar, http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/natural_hazards/fire/nhf0001.htm, visited on 04.07.2000).
Preparedness: These are the real preparations and GIS can answer the questions like where should fire stations be located? What can be evacuation routes? How will people be notified and directed? What are the stocks required for expected number of affected people? what about the road network? Weather information and location, reservoir level at dams, water paths and so forth can be displayed in real- time monitoring for early warning by GIS ( ESRI White Paper,1 999).
Response: The quickest response can be chosen and routed and dispatched to the location. When an important building is on fire, it is possible to find the floor plan of the building, closest fire hydrants, electricity. GIS provides detailed information before the first units arrive. GPS assists GIS in these moments. The response units’ responsibilities are assigned by GIS with looking at the locations on the map.The simulations with GIS allows a planner to observe directly on the screen in real time, look at the effects and alternatives (Levitt, 1 997). This process leads to better production of solutions, controls and optimization.
Recovery: In short-term recovery efforts, GIS can work with GPS to locate the damage, type and amount. Laptop computers or palm computers can update the databases. GIS can display the areas that need supplies. In long- time recovery, site selections of houses, route planning, utility, network maintenance can be utilize with GIS (IDNDR, www.idndr.org). Restoration investments and giving priorities to the locations or areas can be made with the assistance of GIS.
2.2.3 Earthquake- Resistant Cities
The cities, described below, are the earthquake-prone areas which have successful systems about earthquake management using GIS.
First example is a study about an emergency response system for Hyderabad India (Thapar, http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/natural_hazards/fire/nhf0001.htm, visited on 04.07.2000). It is a GIS based management system for the municipality. The objectives were to find the risk areas depending on the buildings, land use and building codes, to improve fire services, to build an emergency response management system for the city using GIS for decision making. The methodology is to collect spatial and nonspatial data, relate each other, to overlay and to make analysis. Then an emergency response management system is proposed. The spatial data contain the land use map, slums and their population, locations of fire stations and police stations, location of water tanks and road network. Nonspatial data contains the travel speed and time, density, age and population of slums, names of fire and police stations and their records. The risk zones are extracted from population, land use and slum characteristics information. The accessibility is defined using road network and travel speed. Poorly served areas are found from the locations of the facilities. For an integrated response for Hyderabad City, some factors are explained such as detailed digital base maps, detailed information about land use, building use, transportation, climate, geology and socio- economic data, latest communication equipment, trained teams and leader, motivated government and public. These factors create an efficient system. This system, an urgent need for the cities and municipalities, help in analyzing the risk factors and saving precious lives and properties.
Another example is from Kobe, Great Hanshin- Awaji Earthquake Disaster Management System.In 1 995, 5000 people were killed and 247000 buildings were damaged or collapsed because of 7.3 magnitute earthquake. After these great losses, a GIS and computer network based system was constructed for disaster tolerant, secure city (http://web.pref.hyogo.jp/syoubou/phoe/index-e.htm, visited on 1 4.02.200 ). A large network is built including government office, local organizations, fire and police headquarters and military services. Eight centers exist for different systems like seismographic information network system which picks up information from seismometers, observatory information collection and distribution system which collects river and meteorological information, damage estimation system using seismographical and meteorological information damage is estimated on ground, houses and early warning system guiding pre-defined actions for the staff.
Map information system displays maps and databases, disaster information system collects damage status and statistics, maps and images visually. Disaster Prevention Communication support system provides e-mail, bulletin board and file sharing.(see Figure 2.3) And finally back up center provides feature for emergency management, collection and distribution of information to departments in order to prevent the losses and the worse situation, the precautions are taken in Kobe with the help of geographical information technologies.
United Nations decided to designate the 1 990s as an International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR). The objective of the decade is to reduce loss of life, property damage and social and economic disruption cause by the natural disasters, to improve the capacity of each country to mitigate the effects of the natural disasters (Coburn and Spence,1 992). In this concept, a tool is built to raise awareness of earthquake risks. Risk Assessment Tools for Diagnosis of Urban Areas against Seismic Disasters (RADIUS) provide practical tools for earthquake risk reduction (UNISDR, www.unisdr.org/unisdr/tool.htm#pur, visited on 04.07.2000). For this project, nine cities are selected as the pilot regions in the developing countries. I zmir, Turkey is one of those selected cities as high seismic area. Metropolitan Municipality of I zmir study with Bo aziçi University and prepare an earthquake master plan (zmir Büyük ehir Belediyesi , www.izmir-bld.gov.tr/izmirdeprem/izmirrapor.htm, visited on 27..2000).
Figure 2.3 Kobe earthquake mitigation system
Source: (http://web.pref.hyogo.jp/syoubou/phoe/index-e.htm, visited on 1 4.02.200 )
This plan covers earthquake damage scenarios and microzonation maps, estimates about loss of life, economy, property and property damage. In the first phase, data is collected for forecasting studies. Historic earthquakes, geological, geotechnical and seismic data are compiled and mapped with GIS. The maps are the microzonation maps with intensity scales, ground motion acceleration maps.(see Figure 2.4) The building and infrastructure inventory are built by the experts of local government and Chamber of Civil Engineers. The satellite images and aerial photographs are used while creating this inventory.
The engineers examine the structures of the transportation systems and bridges. Two methods are used while preparing the earthquake scenario maps, one is probabilistic, the other is deterministic. Deterministic one is rational and covers the impacts of I zmir residents. Probabilistic one covers a 50- year projection and examines the vulnerability of the buildings. A GIS software, HAZUS for ArcView, which is a product of FEMA, Federal Emergency Management Agency, is used in this project for determining the vulnerability maps, economic losses, social, demographic maps, building and infrastructure databeases. Today, I zmir has an earthquake master plan for mitigation, response and recovery strategies.
Figure 2.4 The seismicity of I zmir region and the map of hazardous materials
Source: (zmir Büyük ehir Belediyesi, http://www.izmir-bld.gov.tr/izmirdeprem/izmirrapor.htm, visited on 27..2000)
Summary
This chapter gives the definitions about urban information system and earthquake management. The definitions shoud be explained in order to prevent confusion. Because in many cases, risk, hazard, disaster and vulnerability concepts are used in a wrong way. Urban information system and earthquake management are figured out in different sections. But the focus of the thesis is to interrelate them. So, to set out and give the world examples will be better to emphasize some vital points. And GIS is a very useful tool for the asssessment.
In urban information system section, the components and the advantages of urban information system are defined for management levels to use this system. The best practices of urban information system are given from different countries. In Turkey, Bursa is one of the first examples in building urban information system. Greater Municipality of Ankara is really good at infrastructure planning and 3D modelling in GIS. Florida, USA is chosen because urban information system is first applied in a pilot area, it is studied phase by phase and the management level has many benefits from this project. In the case study part of this thesis, pilot area will be explained in detail. Edmonton, Canada is a good example because urban information system is a multi-participant project, many authorized people contribute to build the system. The participants of the proposed system in the thesis are explained in the following chapter. Also, urban information system of Jerusalem, Israel is rather good at teaming. Proposed GIS team working to build and operate the system is based in the next chapter.
In earthquake management section, there is a disaster management cycle showing the actions and preparedness. The phases are based in this cycle. The preparedness and mitigation phases have more emphasis. Because it is believed that, besides advice and instructions given to the public, raising awareness for the earthquake risk is necessary for the management levels and the residents. The technological tools help in this process. But the management including protection and recovery is completed with the interrelated system. The advantages of urban information system used in earthquake management are put in this chapter. The importance of the urban inventory, database creation, the locations of critical facilities etc. is defined and earthquake-resistant cities are explained for taking some good outcomes for the case study. Hyderabad, India example is one of the applications in developing countries. The slums and their protection have a special place in that project. The slums are important and their protection from earthquakes, the revitalisation is one of the hot topics in Turkey. Kobe, Japan, after a major earthquake, has built complex technological systems and offices for a future earthquake. I zmir is the only example in Turkey. The city has an earthquake master plan including calculated and engineered techniques of earthquake estimates and scenarios. From the points of view, below, the positive sides of these studies are extracted and contribute this study:
Description of Urban Information System and Emergency Management Concepts, Examples in Turkey and in the World
Earthquakes are one of the oldest enemies of human being. From time to time in history, many civilizations were brought down his vast energy. In the twentieth century, mankind have come to know that earthquakes are not random, but natural forces driven by the evolutionary processes of the earth. Earthquakes can now be mapped, measured and analyzed.
Geographic Information System (GIS) offers great opportunity to national, regional and local emergency organizations to make planning and management of preparedness, mitigation and other measures which reduce losses of earthquake (Nuraliyev, 1 999). Since all problems with planning and management are related to location, they are geographically referenced and require spatial analysis and presentation, a GIS platform is a very helpful tool for planning and decision making in emergency management. Urban information systems, which is a field of GIS, used by the urban authorities, link the urban fragments and spaces with the features of the city and the citizens.
In this chapter, the main concepts, their components and the processes are described. The concepts of urban information system and earthquake management are examined seperately. The cities, where the urban information technologies are completely used and the cities which are ready for any earthquake, are explained for giving the best practices and taking some good results for the next initiatives for the use of these new technologies for the earthquake protection and recovery. The purpose of this chapter, is to extract information and systems from the positive examples for the proposals of this thesis.
2.1 Urban Information Systems
2.1.1 The Components of Urban Information Systems
Urban information systems combine map images with other kinds of information (like tabular data) for the purpose of analyzing spatial relationships among data related to locations in the city (Huxhold, 1 99 ).
An urban information system is the combination of talented persons (Geographic Information System team), spatial and descriptive data, analytic methods and computer software and hardware- all organized to automate, manage and deliver information through geographic presentation (Zeiler, 1 999).
Urban information systems include physical, technical, social, economic and administrative data, base maps, land use maps, master and development plans, the land information and cadastral maps. The system can make queries from legal documents, reports about the spaces, the citizens and result thematic maps like building, population and infrastructure maps. The building maps show building occupancy, construction type or date, number of floors, license information, users information and so on. The system may contain transportation maps, traffic-density maps, shortest path for the firefighters or ambulance drivers. According to the population, the decisions can be made about the locations of the social facilities like schools, health centers or green areas, utility service areas, telecommunication, gas, electricity (Reis,1 996). The analyses can be made about the topography, 3D surfaces, network analysis, service area analysis etc. This system can be applied in different administrative districts like a neighborhood or a city, or a county in federal governments.
All these systems are built for recognizing, understanding, planning, directing, monitoring and controlling the city for an effective and efficient urban management.
2.1.2 The Advantages of Urban Information Systems
Urban information systems make things easier and can be used in many fields that study with maps in urban scale.
Urban information systems bring automation. Graphical data can be visualized with rich display tools, can be connected, related with non-graphical data, queried and measured. Thematic maps can be analyzed, synthesized and alternatives can be produced. The database of the system builds spatial and topological relationships. Classifications can be done easily. Real-time updating is very easy, the integration with the other technologies like global positioning systems, remote sensing or internet is strong. Some charts, tables, statistics, graphics and ready reports can be taken from the system (Kim and Levine, 1 996).
Urban information system is a decision-support system which improves the accuracy and quality of the studies with computers and saves time. The system prevents duplication, loss of effort, and makes comparisons easily.
Urban planning and geography is the science of urban information system. They provide framework for studying complex systems. Urban information system is an instrument for implementing geographical thinking. It shows context and content, patterns, linkages and trends. The organizational consequences of urban information system are data sharing, work flow and co-ordination, teaming and communication (ESRI GIS Day, 2000).
2.1.3. Urban Information Systems In Turkey and In Other Countries
Beginning in the late 1 950s in the world, planners started to develop and use computerized models, planning information systems and decision-support systems to improve performance (Nedovic-Budic, 2000). They have found tools to enhance their analytical, geospatial technologies that differ from one country to another. The industrialized information societies are well adapted to this technology. They use it in many fields, the governments apply urban information systems in all aspects of the planning process, including data collection, storage, data analysis and presentation, planning and policy making, communication with the public, policy implementation and administration.The United States is the pioneer in this field, they began working with urban information systems in 1 970s. Canada and Australia have developed systems, also European countries like France, Germany and Holland have been successful in applying these technologies. Turkey is a latecomer in this field because of financial problems, the other priorities, the lack of technical expertise and different mentalities of the administrators. But today, urban information system is a popular magic word in the local governments. First initiative local governments like Bursa and Aydin cities began to use urban information systems in the mid-1 990s, then other three metropolitan municipalities, I stanbul, Ankara and I zmir made studies about digitising the maps, plans and creating inventories about their cities. In this section, first, Turkey examples and their studies about urban information systems are explained, then the other world examples are described for their different uses and applications.
2.1.3.1. Urban Information Systems in Turkey
The Municipality of Greater Bursa built urban information systems in 1 996 as one of the beginners, aiming to give better service to their citizens (Bursa Büyük ehir Belediyesi, http://www.bursa-bld.gov.tr, visited on 27..2000). The goals of the system are; revitalization of infrastructure planning, prevention of illegal building construction, better management of urban traffic, easy and practical use of deed and cadastre information, increase the revenues of the government with property and garbage taxes, monitoring the city development and construction information and situation. The demographic analysis and population forecast techniques are tried and charts are prepared on the maps by the help of GIS.
Today, The Municipality of Greater Bursa with its three district municipalities, finished to create urban inventory. The database of the system includes the address information about the building and the household. In the building database, there are fields of street name, building type, number of floors, number of flats, heating type. In the household database, the data contains number of household, renter/owner, name, surname, occupancy type, outerdoor number and electricity, water numbers. There is detailed information about deed records. Another database is built for the development plans. The different attributes of blocks can be found in the databases of the plans. Major investments caused a very rapid growth in the city and the urban authorities would like to catch the current geographic information technologies in the twenty first century.
Another example is from the capital, Municipality of Greater Ankara. They prepare new projects for technological development in management. The urban information system called AKB S (Ankara Büyük ehir Belediyesi, http://www.ankara.bel.gov.tr/akbis, visited on 1 2.2.2000) aims to give better services to public, better city planning, better green areas to control the pollution, to make development plans to prepare cadastral database, better transportation planning and to find emergency paths. They make studies to reach these goals in design phase, but ASK department which deals with water and sewer system, is more active in urban information system. They planned digital base maps, buildings, street centerlines, important facilities, the piping and the electricity system, manholes etc. (Ankara Su ve Kanalizasyon I daresi, http:// www.aski.gov.tr, visited on 1 2.2.2000). They built 3D models of land and made analysis on them. Also the payments of citizens can be queried. Now they study on hydrological modelling with GIS in collaboration with a university. The Municipality of Greater Ankara tries several ways for livable, safe and better quality of urban environments by the help of technological tools.
Figure 2. AKB S Ankara Urban Information System
Source: Municipality of Greater Ankara and ASK (http://www.ankara.bel.gov.tr/akbis, visited on 1 2.2.2000, http://www.aski.gov.tr, visited on 1 2.2.2000)
2.1.3.2. Urban Information Systems in Other Countries
The municipalities of Canada have been successful in applying urban information and multi- participant systems. A good example is the City of Edmonton. Edmonton’s Geographic Base Information System (Mines, 1 997) is a multi-participant process that shares geographic data. GBIS has a cadastre map. To this base, authorized participants add their own data; streets, addresses, land use, ownership and utilities. Participants can also create their own service areas in the neighborhoods.Urban planners use GBIS to integrate addresses, socio- economic and land use data, while landscape planners use it to plan the green areas, engineers use GBIS to design the streets and utilities. Fire, ambulance and police services use it for dispatch and decide where best to place their sources. It is also used for garbage collection, route locations, meter reading etc. It is a successful shared urban information system integrated with the internet.
Another example is a U.S city, Fort Lauderdale in Florida, which has satisfying results in GIS (Burton et al. 1 998). City funded GIS for a period of five years at three million dollars in 1 996. They tried on a pilot project (the base map development project) and understood the roles of GIS in updating and maintaining the other data layers. Phase 1 consists of developing action plans in each department and training. Phase 2 consists of applications in city- wide utility, phase 3 consists of continued base map enhancements and other projects. The application plans are suitable to Huxhold’s (99 ) triangle. In the triangle, there is policy at the top level, management in the center and operation in the bottom level. From a policy perspective, the need assessment turned to specific actions. From management perspective, GIS improved productivity and analysis. From operational perspective, the project developed system design and data sharing. This is a good example measured in terms of creative policy making and effective operations.
Historic City, Jerusalem, Israel uses latest urban information system technology in many municipal projects. The system supports decision making at all levels, a central database for all agencies and common city information for all urban planners. It also contains area basemaps, plan information and the outlines of the facilities (ESRI Local Gov. in Europe, 2000). Jerusalem’s GIS need is divided into two groups. One is a platform for managerial, statistical systems and geographic databases for developing applications. The other is to create a technical standard for mapping and editing of engineering systems. Many applications are built in the municipality, for example a system for road accidents, a decision-support system for education facilities, inventory control and planning. Urban information system also supports analyses for social trends and social planning. Furthermore, interaction between the local government and the other agencies can be coordinated with this system.
Developing and building on such solution for the many branches in the municipality requires a team. The team manager is responsible for work plans, defines strategies, coordinates and deals with consultants and contractors. Programmers and system analysts develop applications and infrastructure solutions, develop and test software. The manufacturing engineer put parameters for building databases, controls quality and updates the policies and databases A geographer work with the contractors for as-built and other vector plans. A technician digitises and produces maps. The operator provide data to contractors. Jerusalem’s GIS center manages many projects. A modern urban information system future is founded for this historic city.
2.2 Earthquake Management
Earthquake, as the natural hazard, is the part of the world around human being. Its occurence is inevitable. It destroys natural environment but the natural environment takes care of itself. When it strikes the man-made environment, however, the result is often a “disaster” (N.Carolina E.Management Workbook, http://www.ncem.org/ mitigation/Library/workbook.pdf, visited on 07/07/200 ). Disasters occur when an earthquake crosses paths with the man-made environment, such as buildings, roads, lifelines and crops. The man-made environment, in contrast to natural environment, often needs some emergency assistance.
In the following sections, before proceeding a further discussion of the preparedness, recovery strategies and the role of GIS in earthquake management, some relevant terms are defined. These terms are taken from the internationally agreed glossary of basic terms related to disaster management of International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR, http://www.unisdr.org/unisdr/glossaire.htm, visited on 1 0.0 .2002)
2.1. The Terms in Earthquake Management
Emergency: A sudden and usually unforeseen event that calls for immediate measures to minimize its adverse consequences.
Disaster: A serious disruption of the functioning of society, causing widespread human, material or environmental losses which exceed the ability of affected society to cope using only its own resources. Disasters are often classified according to their cause (natural or manmade).
Risk: Expected losses (of lives, persons injured, property damaged, and economic activity disrupted) due to a particular hazard for a given area and reference period. Based on mathematical calculations, risk is the product of hazard and vulnerability.
Hazard: A threatening event, or the probability of occurence of a potentially damaging phenomenon within a given time period and area.
Vulnerability: Degree of loss (from 0% to 1 00%) resulting from a potentially damaging phenomenon.
2.2.2. The Phases In Earthquake Management
Earthquake management can be seperated into some phases; they depend on time that characterize actions taken such as pre-event, during the event and the post- event. (Radke et al., 2000)
Mitigation: Activities trying to minimize the probability of a disaster. e.g. regulations, carefully planning, land use and building management.
Preparedness: Actions taken before a disaster occurs, when mitigation cannot prevent disasters. This includes operational precautions, loss predictions early warning systems, stocks and education.
Response: Actions following a disaster, this is co-ordination, search and rescue, damage assessment and minimize the loss for a coming damage.
Recovery: Studies to return the systems into normal functionality in the long term . e.g. moving debris, access to water, food, temporary housing etc.
Earthquake management includes many disciplines, engineering part as well as social part, adminstration as well as planing, what can be done in a period of time can be summarized as before, during and after the earthquake.
Figure 2.2 Disaster management cycle
Source:University of Wisconsin Disaster Management Center
(http://epdweb.engr.wisc.edu/dmc/courses/aimscope/AA02_gif/AA020 0.gif, visited on 1 5..200 )
2.2.2.1.Before the earthquake:
The mitigation offers many benefits for the public. The mitigation:
- Saves lives and property
- Reduces vulnerability to future hazards
- Facilitates post-disaster funding
- Speeds recovery
Maps can be prepared showing topography and earthquake-prone areas, locations of critical facilities and any available sources of data. Step 2 is the vulnerability assessment, some calculations and predictions are done in this step. Assessing the place’s vulnerability involves identifying areas of greatest risk, conducting an inventory of those areas and estimating the cost of damage to critical residential, commercial, industrial and public facilities. Step 3 aims to produce some policies about restricting development in risk areas, protecting ciritical facilities, allowing improvements of engineering techniques for strengthening the buildings, some legal studies about building codes. The last step is one of the most important steps. It contains logistics and communication planning, public awareness and training, some practices and experiments about preparedness for a future earthquake (zmir Büyük ehir Belediyesi, http://www.izmir-bld.gov.tr/izmirdeprem/izmirrapor.htm, visited on 27..2000).
By integrating these steps into governmental activities, the community can reduce its vulnerability to the earthquakes. Mitigation is an on-going process and should be re-examined from time to time.
2.2.2.2.During or just after the earthquake:
Just after the disaster, search and rescue activities, transport and communication, evacuation are the priorities to operate. Quick rescue of people by search and rescue teams from collapsed buildings after the impact of a destructive earthquake can save considerable number of lives. Damage and risk should be assessed. An aerial survey may be able to identify the damage areas very rapidly (Coburn and Spence,1 992). Sheltering/ protection is an important subject to manage. Distribution of water, food and public services should be provided quickly. Medical resources needs should be calculated rapidly and the authorities want help from national and international organizations. The hospital capacities are improved. The debris are moved and deads are burried immediately. The follow-on disasters after the earthquake like fires, industrial failures etc. should be tackled by directing the teams from the shortest paths by the help of emergency plans. Earthquake preparedness plans should include locations of temporary camps and houses. According to these plans, the operations are quickly organized by the authorities for the sanitation and the safety of the public.
2.2.2.3.After the earthquake:
“Emergency management is 1 0 percent telecommunications, 20 percent operations and 70 percent information. Information, like people and money, is a resource and the only resource that make possible the co-ordination of vital services during an emergency.” (Menon, 1 999:6) In the short-term recovery process, action- takers are the first, the city deparments, all departments share information through the databases on maps. To have the right data at the right time is critical during emergency to take an organized action. These are the unique maps in one location which direct the managers to estimate and make quick decisions, time is one person’s life at those moments and to visualize the related information make things easier.
In the long-term recovery process, rehabilitation and reconstruction operations should be held by the administration. Resource and need analysis are made for the society. It is needed to coordinate and integrate the reconstruction plans of the various sectors. Studies must be done for repairing the economic damage (Coburn and Spence,1 992). The physical planning of the reconstruction of the damaged area starts immediately. Site selections and alternatives are searched for the settlements.
New projects and improving codes, economy and the training are effective tools for reducing the risk.
2.2.2.4.The Role of GIS in the Phases of Earthquake Management
Much of the information that has to be coordinated in an emergency is spatial: the location of incidents, building collapses and transportation routes. A maproom becomes a center in earthquake management. Computerised mapping is increasingly used for earthquake management with the current developments in geographical information systems being used to link map with databases and other information (Coburn and Spence,1 992). Databases that become useful in emergency include resource lists, inventory of stocks, medical supplies, tents, personnel and contact lists. Keeping those lists, requests for assistance and response is complicated but vital for effective management.
Earthquake management has three objectives. These focus on people, place, processes (Levitt,1 997). The following processes are necessary to reach these objectives:
Planning: Emergency management begins with defining the problems and their locations. These requirements deal with maps. GIS is a tool which has the capability of handling real-time data. e.g. location of recent earthquakes. GIS can have a major role in predicting future disasters (IDNDR, http://www.disaster.info.desastres.net/idndr/idndr.htm, visited on 07.06.200 ).
When hazards like flood, fire hazard areas etc. are displayed with other maps like buildings, houses, streets, pipe and power lines, warehouses etc., government can start to design emergency plans (ESRI white papers, http://www.esri.com/library/whitepapers/pdfs/emermgmt.pdf, visited on 04.05.200 ). GIS environment, database related with maps, has the advantages such as asssessment of the situation through many analysis, implication of hazards in terms of risks and planing, spatial modelling, querying and map preparing for efficient implementation, visualization and simulation of different scenarios. (Thapar,1 998, http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/natural_hazards/fire/nhf0001.htm, visited on 04.07.2000).
Mitigation: In order to minimize or reduce the risk, the mitigation needs can be defined. The priority areas can be selected. The limits can be put for buildings in high- hazard areas. Considering the geological field studies, damage can forecasted in an expected magnitude of an earthquake or displaying different layers of data in GIS like topography, weather and vegetation, high potential fire areas can be found. GIScan identify critical facilities, impact zones, paths, buffers can be put for protective actions. Socio- economic growth trends, demographic situations, infratructure status can be identified from database and it is useful for mitigation analysis (ESRI White Paper, 1 999, Thapar, http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/natural_hazards/fire/nhf0001.htm, visited on 04.07.2000).
Preparedness: These are the real preparations and GIS can answer the questions like where should fire stations be located? What can be evacuation routes? How will people be notified and directed? What are the stocks required for expected number of affected people? what about the road network? Weather information and location, reservoir level at dams, water paths and so forth can be displayed in real- time monitoring for early warning by GIS ( ESRI White Paper,1 999).
Response: The quickest response can be chosen and routed and dispatched to the location. When an important building is on fire, it is possible to find the floor plan of the building, closest fire hydrants, electricity. GIS provides detailed information before the first units arrive. GPS assists GIS in these moments. The response units’ responsibilities are assigned by GIS with looking at the locations on the map.The simulations with GIS allows a planner to observe directly on the screen in real time, look at the effects and alternatives (Levitt, 1 997). This process leads to better production of solutions, controls and optimization.
Recovery: In short-term recovery efforts, GIS can work with GPS to locate the damage, type and amount. Laptop computers or palm computers can update the databases. GIS can display the areas that need supplies. In long- time recovery, site selections of houses, route planning, utility, network maintenance can be utilize with GIS (IDNDR, www.idndr.org). Restoration investments and giving priorities to the locations or areas can be made with the assistance of GIS.
2.2.3 Earthquake- Resistant Cities
The cities, described below, are the earthquake-prone areas which have successful systems about earthquake management using GIS.
First example is a study about an emergency response system for Hyderabad India (Thapar, http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/natural_hazards/fire/nhf0001.htm, visited on 04.07.2000). It is a GIS based management system for the municipality. The objectives were to find the risk areas depending on the buildings, land use and building codes, to improve fire services, to build an emergency response management system for the city using GIS for decision making. The methodology is to collect spatial and nonspatial data, relate each other, to overlay and to make analysis. Then an emergency response management system is proposed. The spatial data contain the land use map, slums and their population, locations of fire stations and police stations, location of water tanks and road network. Nonspatial data contains the travel speed and time, density, age and population of slums, names of fire and police stations and their records. The risk zones are extracted from population, land use and slum characteristics information. The accessibility is defined using road network and travel speed. Poorly served areas are found from the locations of the facilities. For an integrated response for Hyderabad City, some factors are explained such as detailed digital base maps, detailed information about land use, building use, transportation, climate, geology and socio- economic data, latest communication equipment, trained teams and leader, motivated government and public. These factors create an efficient system. This system, an urgent need for the cities and municipalities, help in analyzing the risk factors and saving precious lives and properties.
Another example is from Kobe, Great Hanshin- Awaji Earthquake Disaster Management System.In 1 995, 5000 people were killed and 247000 buildings were damaged or collapsed because of 7.3 magnitute earthquake. After these great losses, a GIS and computer network based system was constructed for disaster tolerant, secure city (http://web.pref.hyogo.jp/syoubou/phoe/index-e.htm, visited on 1 4.02.200 ). A large network is built including government office, local organizations, fire and police headquarters and military services. Eight centers exist for different systems like seismographic information network system which picks up information from seismometers, observatory information collection and distribution system which collects river and meteorological information, damage estimation system using seismographical and meteorological information damage is estimated on ground, houses and early warning system guiding pre-defined actions for the staff.
Map information system displays maps and databases, disaster information system collects damage status and statistics, maps and images visually. Disaster Prevention Communication support system provides e-mail, bulletin board and file sharing.(see Figure 2.3) And finally back up center provides feature for emergency management, collection and distribution of information to departments in order to prevent the losses and the worse situation, the precautions are taken in Kobe with the help of geographical information technologies.
United Nations decided to designate the 1 990s as an International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR). The objective of the decade is to reduce loss of life, property damage and social and economic disruption cause by the natural disasters, to improve the capacity of each country to mitigate the effects of the natural disasters (Coburn and Spence,1 992). In this concept, a tool is built to raise awareness of earthquake risks. Risk Assessment Tools for Diagnosis of Urban Areas against Seismic Disasters (RADIUS) provide practical tools for earthquake risk reduction (UNISDR, www.unisdr.org/unisdr/tool.htm#pur, visited on 04.07.2000). For this project, nine cities are selected as the pilot regions in the developing countries. I zmir, Turkey is one of those selected cities as high seismic area. Metropolitan Municipality of I zmir study with Bo aziçi University and prepare an earthquake master plan (zmir Büyük ehir Belediyesi , www.izmir-bld.gov.tr/izmirdeprem/izmirrapor.htm, visited on 27..2000).
Figure 2.3 Kobe earthquake mitigation system
Source: (http://web.pref.hyogo.jp/syoubou/phoe/index-e.htm, visited on 1 4.02.200 )
This plan covers earthquake damage scenarios and microzonation maps, estimates about loss of life, economy, property and property damage. In the first phase, data is collected for forecasting studies. Historic earthquakes, geological, geotechnical and seismic data are compiled and mapped with GIS. The maps are the microzonation maps with intensity scales, ground motion acceleration maps.(see Figure 2.4) The building and infrastructure inventory are built by the experts of local government and Chamber of Civil Engineers. The satellite images and aerial photographs are used while creating this inventory.
The engineers examine the structures of the transportation systems and bridges. Two methods are used while preparing the earthquake scenario maps, one is probabilistic, the other is deterministic. Deterministic one is rational and covers the impacts of I zmir residents. Probabilistic one covers a 50- year projection and examines the vulnerability of the buildings. A GIS software, HAZUS for ArcView, which is a product of FEMA, Federal Emergency Management Agency, is used in this project for determining the vulnerability maps, economic losses, social, demographic maps, building and infrastructure databeases. Today, I zmir has an earthquake master plan for mitigation, response and recovery strategies.
Figure 2.4 The seismicity of I zmir region and the map of hazardous materials
Source: (zmir Büyük ehir Belediyesi, http://www.izmir-bld.gov.tr/izmirdeprem/izmirrapor.htm, visited on 27..2000)
Summary
This chapter gives the definitions about urban information system and earthquake management. The definitions shoud be explained in order to prevent confusion. Because in many cases, risk, hazard, disaster and vulnerability concepts are used in a wrong way. Urban information system and earthquake management are figured out in different sections. But the focus of the thesis is to interrelate them. So, to set out and give the world examples will be better to emphasize some vital points. And GIS is a very useful tool for the asssessment.
In urban information system section, the components and the advantages of urban information system are defined for management levels to use this system. The best practices of urban information system are given from different countries. In Turkey, Bursa is one of the first examples in building urban information system. Greater Municipality of Ankara is really good at infrastructure planning and 3D modelling in GIS. Florida, USA is chosen because urban information system is first applied in a pilot area, it is studied phase by phase and the management level has many benefits from this project. In the case study part of this thesis, pilot area will be explained in detail. Edmonton, Canada is a good example because urban information system is a multi-participant project, many authorized people contribute to build the system. The participants of the proposed system in the thesis are explained in the following chapter. Also, urban information system of Jerusalem, Israel is rather good at teaming. Proposed GIS team working to build and operate the system is based in the next chapter.
In earthquake management section, there is a disaster management cycle showing the actions and preparedness. The phases are based in this cycle. The preparedness and mitigation phases have more emphasis. Because it is believed that, besides advice and instructions given to the public, raising awareness for the earthquake risk is necessary for the management levels and the residents. The technological tools help in this process. But the management including protection and recovery is completed with the interrelated system. The advantages of urban information system used in earthquake management are put in this chapter. The importance of the urban inventory, database creation, the locations of critical facilities etc. is defined and earthquake-resistant cities are explained for taking some good outcomes for the case study. Hyderabad, India example is one of the applications in developing countries. The slums and their protection have a special place in that project. The slums are important and their protection from earthquakes, the revitalisation is one of the hot topics in Turkey. Kobe, Japan, after a major earthquake, has built complex technological systems and offices for a future earthquake. I zmir is the only example in Turkey. The city has an earthquake master plan including calculated and engineered techniques of earthquake estimates and scenarios. From the points of view, below, the positive sides of these studies are extracted and contribute this study:
- Organisation
- Techniques
- Administration
- System
- Teaming
- Time, phase, period
- Participation
- GIS
- Need assessment
- Pilot project
- Co-ordination, communication